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카테고리 없음2023. 5. 12. 00:43
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23수특-1601
When we are in groups, we tend to feel that we, personally, aren't as responsible as we would be if we were acting on our own. So the decisions that the group makes can easily become extreme. Occasionally, groups reach riskier decisions ― they decide to take actions which are more challenging or unsafe than they should be. Sometimes, though, they make choices that are too cautious. It's known as group polarization: a tendency towards extremes. A lot depends on how the discussions in the group develop. If one person is advocating a risky strategy early on, others may begin to think of even more challenging examples, and that leads the discussion towards reaching a riskier decision. But if someone advocates more cautious approaches at an early stage, this too can influence the direction of the discussion, resulting in a more cautious decision than the group members might have made individually.
23수특-1602
Advertising in the United States is a relatively large and stable marketplace with a dollar volume of activity closely tied to the overall health of the economy. The same is true of other mature industrialized nations, especially those of Western Europe. One significant difference, however, is the way commercial media evolved. In the United States, radio and television systems began as commercial ventures; in many other countries media were largely or completely government supported for years. Different models of commercial support are still evolving and the precise configurations vary by country. This evolution does not mean, however, that governments are uninvolved in steering the development of media. As Joseph Straubhaar observes, television systems are often "stubbornly national," which means advertisers must tailor "global" media plans to the regulatory policies and cultural expectations of individual countries.
23수특-1603
Some people think that facts are the same as events, which they regard as the "objective," "hard core" elements of this universe. The main reason for thinking this is that events seem the best candidates to offer us a rock-solid foundation for our facts. True, events do happen or do not happen; you can neglect them but not deny them. So by replacing facts with events, we might think we have found the strong objective foundation that we strive for. However, facts and events are concepts very different from each other. Unlike facts, events are dated, tied to space and time, whereas facts are detached from space and time. It is even considered a fact that certain events did not occur; it is a fact, for instance, that Darwin did not have a copy of Mendel's 1866 article in his collection. Apparently, a fact is not the same as an event; the best we can say is that a fact is a description of an event, but not the event itself.
23수특-1604
The extent to which decision making is shared with subordinates or concentrated at the top of the hierarchy differs across organizations. Thus, organizations can vary from strongly centralized decision-making practices to highly participatory decision-making practices. In participatory decision making, subordinates have much more input into how decisions are made. Research shows that greater participation in decision making improves employees' satisfaction with the decisions, but does not necessarily translate into better group performance. Therefore, research has investigated when participatory decision making is most useful, and when it is less important. When the workers are highly educated, intelligent, and have considerable expertise in their areas, participatory decision making is more effective. Additionally, when the task at hand is highly complex and knowledge about local conditions is important to the decision, participatory decision making is important. Finally, in times of crisis, when the decisions have very strong impact, participatory, decision making is useful.
23수특-1605
Insects attract collectors' attention because they are extremely diverse and often bear spectacular colors. To biologists, however, bright coloration has been a constantly renewed puzzle because it makes an insect a highly visible prey to prospective predators. Charles Darwin understood that bright colors or exaggerated forms could evolve via sexual selection, the process by which individuals compete for access to mates and fertilization opportunities. However, he felt sexual selection could not account for the striking color pattern of nonreproductive larvae in, for example, Pseudosphinx hawk moth caterpillars. In a reply to Darwin about this puzzle, Alfred R. Wallace proposed that bright colors could advertise the distastefulness of the caterpillars to experienced predators. Indeed, prey that are not edible to predators are predicted to gain by exhibiting very recognizable colors; experienced predators can then correctly identify and subsequently avoid attacking such prey. E. B. Poulton later developed this idea, expanded it to other warning signals (ie, sounds or smells), and coined the term aposematism to describe this phenomenon (from the Greek "away" and "sign").
When we are in groups, we tend to feel that we, personally, aren't as responsible as we would be if we were acting on our own. So the decisions that the group makes can easily become extreme. Occasionally, groups reach riskier decisions ― they decide to take actions which are more challenging or unsafe than they should be. Sometimes, though, they make choices that are too cautious. It's known as group polarization: a tendency towards extremes. A lot depends on how the discussions in the group develop. If one person is advocating a risky strategy early on, others may begin to think of even more challenging examples, and that leads the discussion towards reaching a riskier decision. But if someone advocates more cautious approaches at an early stage, this too can influence the direction of the discussion, resulting in a more cautious decision than the group members might have made individually.
23수특-1602
Advertising in the United States is a relatively large and stable marketplace with a dollar volume of activity closely tied to the overall health of the economy. The same is true of other mature industrialized nations, especially those of Western Europe. One significant difference, however, is the way commercial media evolved. In the United States, radio and television systems began as commercial ventures; in many other countries media were largely or completely government supported for years. Different models of commercial support are still evolving and the precise configurations vary by country. This evolution does not mean, however, that governments are uninvolved in steering the development of media. As Joseph Straubhaar observes, television systems are often "stubbornly national," which means advertisers must tailor "global" media plans to the regulatory policies and cultural expectations of individual countries.
23수특-1603
Some people think that facts are the same as events, which they regard as the "objective," "hard core" elements of this universe. The main reason for thinking this is that events seem the best candidates to offer us a rock-solid foundation for our facts. True, events do happen or do not happen; you can neglect them but not deny them. So by replacing facts with events, we might think we have found the strong objective foundation that we strive for. However, facts and events are concepts very different from each other. Unlike facts, events are dated, tied to space and time, whereas facts are detached from space and time. It is even considered a fact that certain events did not occur; it is a fact, for instance, that Darwin did not have a copy of Mendel's 1866 article in his collection. Apparently, a fact is not the same as an event; the best we can say is that a fact is a description of an event, but not the event itself.
23수특-1604
The extent to which decision making is shared with subordinates or concentrated at the top of the hierarchy differs across organizations. Thus, organizations can vary from strongly centralized decision-making practices to highly participatory decision-making practices. In participatory decision making, subordinates have much more input into how decisions are made. Research shows that greater participation in decision making improves employees' satisfaction with the decisions, but does not necessarily translate into better group performance. Therefore, research has investigated when participatory decision making is most useful, and when it is less important. When the workers are highly educated, intelligent, and have considerable expertise in their areas, participatory decision making is more effective. Additionally, when the task at hand is highly complex and knowledge about local conditions is important to the decision, participatory decision making is important. Finally, in times of crisis, when the decisions have very strong impact, participatory, decision making is useful.
23수특-1605
Insects attract collectors' attention because they are extremely diverse and often bear spectacular colors. To biologists, however, bright coloration has been a constantly renewed puzzle because it makes an insect a highly visible prey to prospective predators. Charles Darwin understood that bright colors or exaggerated forms could evolve via sexual selection, the process by which individuals compete for access to mates and fertilization opportunities. However, he felt sexual selection could not account for the striking color pattern of nonreproductive larvae in, for example, Pseudosphinx hawk moth caterpillars. In a reply to Darwin about this puzzle, Alfred R. Wallace proposed that bright colors could advertise the distastefulness of the caterpillars to experienced predators. Indeed, prey that are not edible to predators are predicted to gain by exhibiting very recognizable colors; experienced predators can then correctly identify and subsequently avoid attacking such prey. E. B. Poulton later developed this idea, expanded it to other warning signals (ie, sounds or smells), and coined the term aposematism to describe this phenomenon (from the Greek "away" and "sign").
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