232_s3 본문읽기 45
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 12. 00:43
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23수특-2503
Predicting whether a movie will be a success is perhaps the "Holy Grail" of most film-makers and especially the big movie studios. While critical acclaim is always welcome, in the end it is important that a movie makes money. For the big studios ─ now increasingly owned by massive global corporations ─ making movies that deliver wide profit margins is the ultimate metric of performance. Movies increasingly depend on non-theatrical sources for revenues. This fact does not diminish the continuing significance of solid box office performance. When a movie hits top spot at the box office, not only does this deliver direct revenue yield, it can further promote other income sources over time. A high public profile means not only that its potential as an attractive choice for repeat viewing on other platforms increases but that its potential to yield sequels might increase, too. In the end, nothing breeds success like success. This maxim is probably the main reason why the major movie studios really like making sequels to highly successful movies and really like to hire star actors with a track record of appearing in blockbuster films that generally do well at the box office.
23수특-2601
Learners can improve the effectiveness of their attributions through training. In a pioneering study, Carol Susan Dweck, an American psychologist, provided students who demonstrated learned helplessness with both successful and unsuccessful experiences. When the students were unsuccessful, the experimenter specifically stated that the failure was caused by lack of effort or ineffective strategies. Comparable students were given similar experiences but no training. After 25 sessions, the learners who were counseled about their effort and strategies responded more appropriately to failure by persisting longer and adapting their strategies more effectively. Additional research has corroborated Dweck's findings. Strategy instruction was most effective for students who believed that they were already trying hard. This research suggests that teachers can increase students' motivation to learn by teaching them learning strategies and encouraging them to attribute successes to effort.
23수특-2602
A lot of research discusses what leads to relatively permanent acquisition of new knowledge or skills. You won't be surprised to hear that active learning works far better than passive learning. In other words, sitting still in a classroom for more than a half hour at a time (no matter how interesting the material) isn't nearly as potent as having opportunities to engage actively with the concepts through discussion, group interaction, practice, immersion, or some other form of direct experience. Likewise, it is absolutely critical for retaining new knowledge and skills that all your senses are engaged. It is great to simulate your intellect, but even better if you can become involved emotionally, physically, and interpersonally. In other words, it isn't enough to merely read this material in a book or hear an instructor talk about it in class. You must also have opportunities to practice the skills and make the ideas your own.
23수특-2603
According to Piaget, organizing, assimilating, and accommodating can be viewed as a kind of complex balancing act. In his theory, the actual changes in thinking take place through the process of equilibration ─ the act of searching for a balance. Piaget assumed that people continually test the adequacy of their thinking processes in order to achieve that balance. Briefly, the process of equilibration works like this: If we apply a particular scheme to an event or situation and the scheme works, then equilibrium exists. If the scheme does not produce a satisfying result, then disequilibrium exists, and we become uncomfortable. This motivates us to keep searching for a solution through assimilation and accommodation, and thus our thinking changes and moves ahead. Of course, the level of disequilibrium must be just right or optimal ─ too little and we aren't interested in changing, too much and we may be discouraged or anxious and not change.
23수특-27Gateway
Becoming competent in another culture means looking beyond behavior to see if we can understand the attitudes, beliefs, and values that motivate what we observe. By looking only at the visible aspects of culture ─ customs, clothing, food, and language ─ we develop a short-sighted view of intercultural understanding ─ just the tip of the iceberg, really. If we are to be successful in our business interactions with people who have different values and beliefs about how the world is ordered, then we must go below the surface of what it means to understand culture and attempt to see what Edward Hall calls the "hidden dimensions." Those hidden aspects are the very foundation of culture and are the reason why culture is actually more than meets the eye. We tend not to notice those cultural norms until they violate what we consider to be common sense, good judgment, or the nature of things.
Predicting whether a movie will be a success is perhaps the "Holy Grail" of most film-makers and especially the big movie studios. While critical acclaim is always welcome, in the end it is important that a movie makes money. For the big studios ─ now increasingly owned by massive global corporations ─ making movies that deliver wide profit margins is the ultimate metric of performance. Movies increasingly depend on non-theatrical sources for revenues. This fact does not diminish the continuing significance of solid box office performance. When a movie hits top spot at the box office, not only does this deliver direct revenue yield, it can further promote other income sources over time. A high public profile means not only that its potential as an attractive choice for repeat viewing on other platforms increases but that its potential to yield sequels might increase, too. In the end, nothing breeds success like success. This maxim is probably the main reason why the major movie studios really like making sequels to highly successful movies and really like to hire star actors with a track record of appearing in blockbuster films that generally do well at the box office.
23수특-2601
Learners can improve the effectiveness of their attributions through training. In a pioneering study, Carol Susan Dweck, an American psychologist, provided students who demonstrated learned helplessness with both successful and unsuccessful experiences. When the students were unsuccessful, the experimenter specifically stated that the failure was caused by lack of effort or ineffective strategies. Comparable students were given similar experiences but no training. After 25 sessions, the learners who were counseled about their effort and strategies responded more appropriately to failure by persisting longer and adapting their strategies more effectively. Additional research has corroborated Dweck's findings. Strategy instruction was most effective for students who believed that they were already trying hard. This research suggests that teachers can increase students' motivation to learn by teaching them learning strategies and encouraging them to attribute successes to effort.
23수특-2602
A lot of research discusses what leads to relatively permanent acquisition of new knowledge or skills. You won't be surprised to hear that active learning works far better than passive learning. In other words, sitting still in a classroom for more than a half hour at a time (no matter how interesting the material) isn't nearly as potent as having opportunities to engage actively with the concepts through discussion, group interaction, practice, immersion, or some other form of direct experience. Likewise, it is absolutely critical for retaining new knowledge and skills that all your senses are engaged. It is great to simulate your intellect, but even better if you can become involved emotionally, physically, and interpersonally. In other words, it isn't enough to merely read this material in a book or hear an instructor talk about it in class. You must also have opportunities to practice the skills and make the ideas your own.
23수특-2603
According to Piaget, organizing, assimilating, and accommodating can be viewed as a kind of complex balancing act. In his theory, the actual changes in thinking take place through the process of equilibration ─ the act of searching for a balance. Piaget assumed that people continually test the adequacy of their thinking processes in order to achieve that balance. Briefly, the process of equilibration works like this: If we apply a particular scheme to an event or situation and the scheme works, then equilibrium exists. If the scheme does not produce a satisfying result, then disequilibrium exists, and we become uncomfortable. This motivates us to keep searching for a solution through assimilation and accommodation, and thus our thinking changes and moves ahead. Of course, the level of disequilibrium must be just right or optimal ─ too little and we aren't interested in changing, too much and we may be discouraged or anxious and not change.
23수특-27Gateway
Becoming competent in another culture means looking beyond behavior to see if we can understand the attitudes, beliefs, and values that motivate what we observe. By looking only at the visible aspects of culture ─ customs, clothing, food, and language ─ we develop a short-sighted view of intercultural understanding ─ just the tip of the iceberg, really. If we are to be successful in our business interactions with people who have different values and beliefs about how the world is ordered, then we must go below the surface of what it means to understand culture and attempt to see what Edward Hall calls the "hidden dimensions." Those hidden aspects are the very foundation of culture and are the reason why culture is actually more than meets the eye. We tend not to notice those cultural norms until they violate what we consider to be common sense, good judgment, or the nature of things.
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232_s3 본문읽기 40
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 12. 00:43
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23수특-2402
If part of the attraction of the community to outsiders is its cultural heritage and traditions, that will likely change over time and frequently not for the better. Symbols of a historic culture may be pervasive, but only in a make-believe form. Tourist shops on small Pacific islands may sell replicas of native art ─ all turned out in huge quantities by manufacturers in other parts of the world. Plastic Black Forest clocks and Swiss music boxes are offered to tourists that are mass-produced in Taiwan or China. A commitment to craftsmanship and true local heritage vanishes. These false symbols of earlier times contribute to an overly commercial feeling at destinations and a sense that nothing seems real now, and perhaps never was. A danger lies in the loss of a sense of personal identity by residents and a feeling of being disconnected from their past. Their heritage and culture now seem less significant or important. It serves primarily as a commercial front for visitors who buy cheap trinkets and watch professionally staged shows that attempt to recreate cultural practices or historic events.
23수특-2403
Physical contests and games in Greek culture influenced art, philosophy and the everyday lives of people wealthy enough to train, hire professionals and travel to events. However, Greek contests and games were different from the organized competitive sports of today. First, they were grounded in religion; second, they lacked complex administrative structures; third, they did not involve measurements and record keeping from event to event. However, there is one major similarity: they often reproduced dominant patterns of social relations in society as a whole. The power and advantages that went with being wealthy, male, young and able-bodied in Greek society shaped the games and contests in ways that limited the participation of most people. Even the definitions of excellence used to evaluate performance reflected the abilities of young males. This meant that the abilities of others were substandard by definition ― if you could not do it as a young, able-bodied Greek man did it, you were doing it the wrong way. This legitimized and preserved the privilege enjoyed by a select group of men in Greek society.
23수특-25Gateway
Young contemporary artists who employ digital technologies in their practice rarely make reference to computers. For example, Wade Guyton, an abstractionist who uses a word processing program and inkjet printers, does not call himself a computer artist. Moreover, some critics, who admire his work, are little concerned about his extensive use of computers in the art-making process. This is a marked contrast from three decades ago when artists who utilized computers were labeled by critics ― often disapprovingly ― as computer artists. For the present generation of artists, the computer, or more appropriately, the laptop, is one in a collection of integrated, portable digital technologies that link their social and working life. With tablets and cell phones surpassing personal computers in Internet usage, and as slim digital devices resemble nothing like the room-sized mainframes and bulky desktop computers of previous decades, it now appears that the computer artist is finally extinct.
23수특-2501
In the field of musical expertise, there is a dichotomy of thinking. On the one hand, there is a widespread perception in the general population that expert musicians have innate talent, or giftedness, beyond ordinary abilities. Talent, as part of the vernacular in the field of music, is usually assumed to be a stable trait ― one is either born with musical talent or not. Music aptitude tests popular in the early to mid-twentieth century, such as the Seashore Tests of Musical Talent and the Music Aptitude Profile, attempted to find children who had this musical talent. On the other hand, there is a very real feeling that ability in music comes from a disciplined work ethic. It would be unacceptable, even for those considered talented, not to practice. In fact, those who are considered talented are expected to practice all the more.
23수특-2502
For a long time photographs were understood to be visible traces, as irrefutable evidence of the existence of the presented, its "it has been." Therefore, photographs were initially classified as documents, whether used in the media, in the family album, in books, archives or collections. As digitization began to feed into the realm of photography, and the end of the photographic era was proclaimed, it was its documentary qualities, its "ontology" as a chemical-physical symbol, that suddenly lost its persuasive powers. But even if the sting of digital doubt seems deeply ingrained within the photographic authenticity and evidence, many of its tasks and uses have hardly changed. When we look at a family album created with digital images, closely inspect the X-rays of a broken foot together with the doctor, or view the image of the finish of the 100-meter finals at the Olympic Games, our trust in photography remains. If we trust the use of the images, or more precisely, if we assign them persuasive powers via their use, it does not matter whether they are analog or digital. In other words: We doubt photography, but still use certain photographs to dispel doubt and produce evidence.
If part of the attraction of the community to outsiders is its cultural heritage and traditions, that will likely change over time and frequently not for the better. Symbols of a historic culture may be pervasive, but only in a make-believe form. Tourist shops on small Pacific islands may sell replicas of native art ─ all turned out in huge quantities by manufacturers in other parts of the world. Plastic Black Forest clocks and Swiss music boxes are offered to tourists that are mass-produced in Taiwan or China. A commitment to craftsmanship and true local heritage vanishes. These false symbols of earlier times contribute to an overly commercial feeling at destinations and a sense that nothing seems real now, and perhaps never was. A danger lies in the loss of a sense of personal identity by residents and a feeling of being disconnected from their past. Their heritage and culture now seem less significant or important. It serves primarily as a commercial front for visitors who buy cheap trinkets and watch professionally staged shows that attempt to recreate cultural practices or historic events.
23수특-2403
Physical contests and games in Greek culture influenced art, philosophy and the everyday lives of people wealthy enough to train, hire professionals and travel to events. However, Greek contests and games were different from the organized competitive sports of today. First, they were grounded in religion; second, they lacked complex administrative structures; third, they did not involve measurements and record keeping from event to event. However, there is one major similarity: they often reproduced dominant patterns of social relations in society as a whole. The power and advantages that went with being wealthy, male, young and able-bodied in Greek society shaped the games and contests in ways that limited the participation of most people. Even the definitions of excellence used to evaluate performance reflected the abilities of young males. This meant that the abilities of others were substandard by definition ― if you could not do it as a young, able-bodied Greek man did it, you were doing it the wrong way. This legitimized and preserved the privilege enjoyed by a select group of men in Greek society.
23수특-25Gateway
Young contemporary artists who employ digital technologies in their practice rarely make reference to computers. For example, Wade Guyton, an abstractionist who uses a word processing program and inkjet printers, does not call himself a computer artist. Moreover, some critics, who admire his work, are little concerned about his extensive use of computers in the art-making process. This is a marked contrast from three decades ago when artists who utilized computers were labeled by critics ― often disapprovingly ― as computer artists. For the present generation of artists, the computer, or more appropriately, the laptop, is one in a collection of integrated, portable digital technologies that link their social and working life. With tablets and cell phones surpassing personal computers in Internet usage, and as slim digital devices resemble nothing like the room-sized mainframes and bulky desktop computers of previous decades, it now appears that the computer artist is finally extinct.
23수특-2501
In the field of musical expertise, there is a dichotomy of thinking. On the one hand, there is a widespread perception in the general population that expert musicians have innate talent, or giftedness, beyond ordinary abilities. Talent, as part of the vernacular in the field of music, is usually assumed to be a stable trait ― one is either born with musical talent or not. Music aptitude tests popular in the early to mid-twentieth century, such as the Seashore Tests of Musical Talent and the Music Aptitude Profile, attempted to find children who had this musical talent. On the other hand, there is a very real feeling that ability in music comes from a disciplined work ethic. It would be unacceptable, even for those considered talented, not to practice. In fact, those who are considered talented are expected to practice all the more.
23수특-2502
For a long time photographs were understood to be visible traces, as irrefutable evidence of the existence of the presented, its "it has been." Therefore, photographs were initially classified as documents, whether used in the media, in the family album, in books, archives or collections. As digitization began to feed into the realm of photography, and the end of the photographic era was proclaimed, it was its documentary qualities, its "ontology" as a chemical-physical symbol, that suddenly lost its persuasive powers. But even if the sting of digital doubt seems deeply ingrained within the photographic authenticity and evidence, many of its tasks and uses have hardly changed. When we look at a family album created with digital images, closely inspect the X-rays of a broken foot together with the doctor, or view the image of the finish of the 100-meter finals at the Olympic Games, our trust in photography remains. If we trust the use of the images, or more precisely, if we assign them persuasive powers via their use, it does not matter whether they are analog or digital. In other words: We doubt photography, but still use certain photographs to dispel doubt and produce evidence.
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232_s3 본문읽기 25
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 12. 00:43
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23수특-1606
In ancient and medieval times considerable respect was accorded to language by those working in the scientific field. According to the ancient metaphysical Weltanschauung, it was believed that the structure of reality and of thought were so closely allied that they were interchangeable. A logical statement ― not only a matter of thinking but also of linguistics ― was automatically a true statement of reality. Since such a statement happened to be true, it did not need to be subjected to experimental testing. However, in modern times it was realized for the first time that trust in the accord between reality and thinking was based on a grossly exaggerated notion of the scope of human reason. In order to discover whether a logical statement (ie the logical language) was really true (ie agreed with reality), the statement should be tested against empirical reality in an experiment. The emphasis on the physical experiment is characteristic of modern science. Later again it was realized that even this approach overrated the importance of thinking: from the outset research should be directed by experiments, although that experimental action ― like any action ― required the support of logical thought.
23수특-1701
There are several theories about why older people experience "long-term" time compression so much more acutely than young people. It has been observed, for example, that for a twenty-year-old, ten years is half a lifetime, but for a fifty-year-old, the same span represents just 20 percent of one's life. As we age, a decade becomes an ever-smaller proportion of our life experience. Others have emphasized the fact that, in a ten-year span, younger people encounter more "turning points" than older people. In just ten years, a younger person is likely to graduate from college, woo and win a mate, start a family, and buy a house. Older people, in contrast, can easily pass a decade doing the same job and living in the same house with the same spouse. The absence of frequent life-changing events may partly explain why older people feel that the later decades seem to pass so quickly.
23수특-1702
Social mobility is upward or downward movement in social position over time in a society. That movement can be specific to individuals who change social positions or to categories of people, such as racial or ethnic groups. Social mobility between generations is referred to as intergenerational mobility. The self-made myth suggests that social position in the United States is largely up to the individual, implying that mobility is quite common and easy to achieve for those who apply themselves. However, what people believe and what is fact are often not the same. A recent experimental study found that Americans substantially and consistently overestimate the amount of income mobility and educational access in society. The higher one's social class, the more likely they are to overestimate social mobility. In other words, wealthy Americans tend to subscribe to the belief that pulling oneself out of poverty is easier than it actually is and that one's wealth is a result of hard work and initiative, rather than luck or birth.
23수특-1703
In Ancient Greece, many private individuals believed in the powers of magic, such as farmers who were always dependent on the weather. Even though the use of magic was widespread in Ancient Greece, there remained an official caution over its use. We know that the Greek authorities believed that magic was an activity capable of results, but they grew concerned about those who practiced harmful magic. So it was established that those who practiced harmful magic could be punished by civic action. This may be the reason why magic in the classical world was held in low esteem and condemned by speakers and writers. Likewise, we find certain intellectuals realizing that the power of magic could be abused. For example, Plato believed that those who sold spells and curse tablets should be punished. Epicurean and Stoic philosophers also believed that magic should be eliminated. This mistrust of magic, along with religion and a separation of humans from the divine world, created a need to develop new methods of understanding the world. It is thus understandable that the Ancient Greeks created the foundations for philosophy.
23수특-1704
The development psychologist Jerome Kagan measured changes in children's temperament between the ages of 4 months and 7 years. He classified several healthy 4-month-old infants as high reactors (easily excited or fearful) or low reactors (relaxed and unafraid), depending upon their responses to an unfamiliar stimulus. Kagan waved colorful mobiles in front of a baby, played a tape saying, "Hello baby, how are you doing today" and popped a balloon behind the baby's head. High reactors moved around violently and cried, while low reactors rested or even laughed during the tests. By the time these infants were 4 years old, some of the high reactors were quite shy, subdued, and quiet, while others had moved toward the center of Kagan's "shy-bold" continuum. By the age of 7, only 15 percent of the initially low reactors were enthusiastic, fearless, and highly sociable kids, and the rest had moved closer to the center. None of the high reactors became fearless, and none of the low reactors became fearful; in other words, environment only moderately affected the final outcome.
In ancient and medieval times considerable respect was accorded to language by those working in the scientific field. According to the ancient metaphysical Weltanschauung, it was believed that the structure of reality and of thought were so closely allied that they were interchangeable. A logical statement ― not only a matter of thinking but also of linguistics ― was automatically a true statement of reality. Since such a statement happened to be true, it did not need to be subjected to experimental testing. However, in modern times it was realized for the first time that trust in the accord between reality and thinking was based on a grossly exaggerated notion of the scope of human reason. In order to discover whether a logical statement (ie the logical language) was really true (ie agreed with reality), the statement should be tested against empirical reality in an experiment. The emphasis on the physical experiment is characteristic of modern science. Later again it was realized that even this approach overrated the importance of thinking: from the outset research should be directed by experiments, although that experimental action ― like any action ― required the support of logical thought.
23수특-1701
There are several theories about why older people experience "long-term" time compression so much more acutely than young people. It has been observed, for example, that for a twenty-year-old, ten years is half a lifetime, but for a fifty-year-old, the same span represents just 20 percent of one's life. As we age, a decade becomes an ever-smaller proportion of our life experience. Others have emphasized the fact that, in a ten-year span, younger people encounter more "turning points" than older people. In just ten years, a younger person is likely to graduate from college, woo and win a mate, start a family, and buy a house. Older people, in contrast, can easily pass a decade doing the same job and living in the same house with the same spouse. The absence of frequent life-changing events may partly explain why older people feel that the later decades seem to pass so quickly.
23수특-1702
Social mobility is upward or downward movement in social position over time in a society. That movement can be specific to individuals who change social positions or to categories of people, such as racial or ethnic groups. Social mobility between generations is referred to as intergenerational mobility. The self-made myth suggests that social position in the United States is largely up to the individual, implying that mobility is quite common and easy to achieve for those who apply themselves. However, what people believe and what is fact are often not the same. A recent experimental study found that Americans substantially and consistently overestimate the amount of income mobility and educational access in society. The higher one's social class, the more likely they are to overestimate social mobility. In other words, wealthy Americans tend to subscribe to the belief that pulling oneself out of poverty is easier than it actually is and that one's wealth is a result of hard work and initiative, rather than luck or birth.
23수특-1703
In Ancient Greece, many private individuals believed in the powers of magic, such as farmers who were always dependent on the weather. Even though the use of magic was widespread in Ancient Greece, there remained an official caution over its use. We know that the Greek authorities believed that magic was an activity capable of results, but they grew concerned about those who practiced harmful magic. So it was established that those who practiced harmful magic could be punished by civic action. This may be the reason why magic in the classical world was held in low esteem and condemned by speakers and writers. Likewise, we find certain intellectuals realizing that the power of magic could be abused. For example, Plato believed that those who sold spells and curse tablets should be punished. Epicurean and Stoic philosophers also believed that magic should be eliminated. This mistrust of magic, along with religion and a separation of humans from the divine world, created a need to develop new methods of understanding the world. It is thus understandable that the Ancient Greeks created the foundations for philosophy.
23수특-1704
The development psychologist Jerome Kagan measured changes in children's temperament between the ages of 4 months and 7 years. He classified several healthy 4-month-old infants as high reactors (easily excited or fearful) or low reactors (relaxed and unafraid), depending upon their responses to an unfamiliar stimulus. Kagan waved colorful mobiles in front of a baby, played a tape saying, "Hello baby, how are you doing today" and popped a balloon behind the baby's head. High reactors moved around violently and cried, while low reactors rested or even laughed during the tests. By the time these infants were 4 years old, some of the high reactors were quite shy, subdued, and quiet, while others had moved toward the center of Kagan's "shy-bold" continuum. By the age of 7, only 15 percent of the initially low reactors were enthusiastic, fearless, and highly sociable kids, and the rest had moved closer to the center. None of the high reactors became fearless, and none of the low reactors became fearful; in other words, environment only moderately affected the final outcome.
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232_s3 본문읽기 20
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 12. 00:43
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23수특-1601
When we are in groups, we tend to feel that we, personally, aren't as responsible as we would be if we were acting on our own. So the decisions that the group makes can easily become extreme. Occasionally, groups reach riskier decisions ― they decide to take actions which are more challenging or unsafe than they should be. Sometimes, though, they make choices that are too cautious. It's known as group polarization: a tendency towards extremes. A lot depends on how the discussions in the group develop. If one person is advocating a risky strategy early on, others may begin to think of even more challenging examples, and that leads the discussion towards reaching a riskier decision. But if someone advocates more cautious approaches at an early stage, this too can influence the direction of the discussion, resulting in a more cautious decision than the group members might have made individually.
23수특-1602
Advertising in the United States is a relatively large and stable marketplace with a dollar volume of activity closely tied to the overall health of the economy. The same is true of other mature industrialized nations, especially those of Western Europe. One significant difference, however, is the way commercial media evolved. In the United States, radio and television systems began as commercial ventures; in many other countries media were largely or completely government supported for years. Different models of commercial support are still evolving and the precise configurations vary by country. This evolution does not mean, however, that governments are uninvolved in steering the development of media. As Joseph Straubhaar observes, television systems are often "stubbornly national," which means advertisers must tailor "global" media plans to the regulatory policies and cultural expectations of individual countries.
23수특-1603
Some people think that facts are the same as events, which they regard as the "objective," "hard core" elements of this universe. The main reason for thinking this is that events seem the best candidates to offer us a rock-solid foundation for our facts. True, events do happen or do not happen; you can neglect them but not deny them. So by replacing facts with events, we might think we have found the strong objective foundation that we strive for. However, facts and events are concepts very different from each other. Unlike facts, events are dated, tied to space and time, whereas facts are detached from space and time. It is even considered a fact that certain events did not occur; it is a fact, for instance, that Darwin did not have a copy of Mendel's 1866 article in his collection. Apparently, a fact is not the same as an event; the best we can say is that a fact is a description of an event, but not the event itself.
23수특-1604
The extent to which decision making is shared with subordinates or concentrated at the top of the hierarchy differs across organizations. Thus, organizations can vary from strongly centralized decision-making practices to highly participatory decision-making practices. In participatory decision making, subordinates have much more input into how decisions are made. Research shows that greater participation in decision making improves employees' satisfaction with the decisions, but does not necessarily translate into better group performance. Therefore, research has investigated when participatory decision making is most useful, and when it is less important. When the workers are highly educated, intelligent, and have considerable expertise in their areas, participatory decision making is more effective. Additionally, when the task at hand is highly complex and knowledge about local conditions is important to the decision, participatory decision making is important. Finally, in times of crisis, when the decisions have very strong impact, participatory, decision making is useful.
23수특-1605
Insects attract collectors' attention because they are extremely diverse and often bear spectacular colors. To biologists, however, bright coloration has been a constantly renewed puzzle because it makes an insect a highly visible prey to prospective predators. Charles Darwin understood that bright colors or exaggerated forms could evolve via sexual selection, the process by which individuals compete for access to mates and fertilization opportunities. However, he felt sexual selection could not account for the striking color pattern of nonreproductive larvae in, for example, Pseudosphinx hawk moth caterpillars. In a reply to Darwin about this puzzle, Alfred R. Wallace proposed that bright colors could advertise the distastefulness of the caterpillars to experienced predators. Indeed, prey that are not edible to predators are predicted to gain by exhibiting very recognizable colors; experienced predators can then correctly identify and subsequently avoid attacking such prey. E. B. Poulton later developed this idea, expanded it to other warning signals (ie, sounds or smells), and coined the term aposematism to describe this phenomenon (from the Greek "away" and "sign").
When we are in groups, we tend to feel that we, personally, aren't as responsible as we would be if we were acting on our own. So the decisions that the group makes can easily become extreme. Occasionally, groups reach riskier decisions ― they decide to take actions which are more challenging or unsafe than they should be. Sometimes, though, they make choices that are too cautious. It's known as group polarization: a tendency towards extremes. A lot depends on how the discussions in the group develop. If one person is advocating a risky strategy early on, others may begin to think of even more challenging examples, and that leads the discussion towards reaching a riskier decision. But if someone advocates more cautious approaches at an early stage, this too can influence the direction of the discussion, resulting in a more cautious decision than the group members might have made individually.
23수특-1602
Advertising in the United States is a relatively large and stable marketplace with a dollar volume of activity closely tied to the overall health of the economy. The same is true of other mature industrialized nations, especially those of Western Europe. One significant difference, however, is the way commercial media evolved. In the United States, radio and television systems began as commercial ventures; in many other countries media were largely or completely government supported for years. Different models of commercial support are still evolving and the precise configurations vary by country. This evolution does not mean, however, that governments are uninvolved in steering the development of media. As Joseph Straubhaar observes, television systems are often "stubbornly national," which means advertisers must tailor "global" media plans to the regulatory policies and cultural expectations of individual countries.
23수특-1603
Some people think that facts are the same as events, which they regard as the "objective," "hard core" elements of this universe. The main reason for thinking this is that events seem the best candidates to offer us a rock-solid foundation for our facts. True, events do happen or do not happen; you can neglect them but not deny them. So by replacing facts with events, we might think we have found the strong objective foundation that we strive for. However, facts and events are concepts very different from each other. Unlike facts, events are dated, tied to space and time, whereas facts are detached from space and time. It is even considered a fact that certain events did not occur; it is a fact, for instance, that Darwin did not have a copy of Mendel's 1866 article in his collection. Apparently, a fact is not the same as an event; the best we can say is that a fact is a description of an event, but not the event itself.
23수특-1604
The extent to which decision making is shared with subordinates or concentrated at the top of the hierarchy differs across organizations. Thus, organizations can vary from strongly centralized decision-making practices to highly participatory decision-making practices. In participatory decision making, subordinates have much more input into how decisions are made. Research shows that greater participation in decision making improves employees' satisfaction with the decisions, but does not necessarily translate into better group performance. Therefore, research has investigated when participatory decision making is most useful, and when it is less important. When the workers are highly educated, intelligent, and have considerable expertise in their areas, participatory decision making is more effective. Additionally, when the task at hand is highly complex and knowledge about local conditions is important to the decision, participatory decision making is important. Finally, in times of crisis, when the decisions have very strong impact, participatory, decision making is useful.
23수특-1605
Insects attract collectors' attention because they are extremely diverse and often bear spectacular colors. To biologists, however, bright coloration has been a constantly renewed puzzle because it makes an insect a highly visible prey to prospective predators. Charles Darwin understood that bright colors or exaggerated forms could evolve via sexual selection, the process by which individuals compete for access to mates and fertilization opportunities. However, he felt sexual selection could not account for the striking color pattern of nonreproductive larvae in, for example, Pseudosphinx hawk moth caterpillars. In a reply to Darwin about this puzzle, Alfred R. Wallace proposed that bright colors could advertise the distastefulness of the caterpillars to experienced predators. Indeed, prey that are not edible to predators are predicted to gain by exhibiting very recognizable colors; experienced predators can then correctly identify and subsequently avoid attacking such prey. E. B. Poulton later developed this idea, expanded it to other warning signals (ie, sounds or smells), and coined the term aposematism to describe this phenomenon (from the Greek "away" and "sign").
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232_s3 본문읽기 15
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 12. 00:43
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23수특-1502
We can presume that the components of love proposed by Sternberg can be found in all cultures. Intimacy, passion, and commitment are most likely cultural universals. Evidence of this comes from many sources, including cultural anthropology, psychological research, and love poetry from across the world. What does appear to vary across cultures, however, is the emphasis placed on the different components of love and on different types of relationships. In collectivist cultures like those found in Asia and Africa, relationships with family may take priority over relationships with lovers and friends. In individualistic cultures, like those of Northern Europe and North America, friendships and romantic relationships compete with family for priority (and often win). Likewise, the concept of duty (similar to Sternberg's concept of commitment) is absolutely central to Chinese Confucianism. In contrast, judging by the mountains of romance novels, love songs, and beauty products found in North America, it is the passionate side of love that is prized in this culture.
23수특-1503
It could be argued that the 'processual' nature of personhood means that one becomes a person as one 'goes along' in society. Indeed, the African philosopher Ifeanyi Menkiti takes this position. He maintains that children are not fully human. Following Kwame Gyekye, a Ghanaian philosopher, however, I would argue that the fact that personhood must be earned is not a denial of personhood to children. It is an affirmation of the view that personhood is an ongoing process attained through interactions with others and one's community. It requires one to affirm ideals and standards thought to be constitutive of the life of a community. These are standards such as generosity, benevolence and respect. A number of sayings in some African societies refer to people who have failed to meet standards expected of a fully human person. These are sayings such as ga e se motho (Tswana) or a ku si muntu (Nguni), literally meaning 'he or she is not a person'. Because one can fall short of these standards at any stage in the life cycle, personhood could be regarded as a becoming. It is an unpredictable, open-ended process during which personhood may be achieved, lost, and regained, depending on a person's circumstances.
23수특-1504
Some countries grow cash crops. These are crops that are in high demand and can be grown in large quantities in specific areas of the world. For example, sugar needs a hot, damp climate; coffee needs a hot climate, rainfall, and higher mountain elevations. Tea needs to grow on hillsides in rainy areas. Bananas grow well in tropical environments. Because there is a worldwide demand for specific items such as these, the farmers in tropical countries grow as much of these commodities as they can. These cash crops are sold all around the world and bring in a lot of money, but there are risks to specializing in just one commodity for trade. If these farmers grow too much of a particular cash crop, that creates more supply than demand, which drops the price of the commodity. If the climate is bad, and the cash crop does not grow well one year, that hurts the country selling it because that crop may be the only one the country provides in large enough quantities to make a living from.
23수특-1505
Some might have had the impression that early scientists like Newton and Galileo belonged to a small sect that conjured science out of the blue as a result of mystical investigation. This wasn't so. Their work did not take place in a cultural vacuum: it was the product of many ancient traditions. One of these was Greek philosophy, which encouraged the belief that the world could be explained by logic, reasoning, and mathematics. Another was agriculture, from which people learned about order and chaos by observing the cycles and rhythms of nature, interrupted periodically by sudden and unpredictable disasters. And then there were religions which encouraged belief in a created world order. The founding assumption of science is that the physical universe is neither random nor absurd; it is not just a meaningless jumble of objects and phenomena randomly placed side by side. Rather, there is a coherent scheme of things. This is often expressed by the simple saying that there is order in nature. But scientists have gone beyond this vague notion to formulate a system of well-defined laws.
23수특-1506
In English, many spelling errors could be avoided if we systematically transcribed each sound with a fixed letter. For instance, if we were to avoid writing the sound f with both the letter "f" and with "ph," life would be much simpler. There is little doubt that we could easily get rid of this and many other useless redundancies whose acquisition eats up many years of childhood. In fact, this is the timid direction that American spelling reform took when it simplified the irregular British spellings of "behaviour" or "analyse" into "behavior" and "analyze." Many more steps could have been taken along the same lines. As expert readers, we cease to be aware of the absurdity of our spelling. Even a letter as simple as "x" is unnecessary, as it stands for two phonemes ks that already have their own spelling. In Turkiye, one takes a "taksi." That country, which in the space of one year adopted the Roman alphabet, drastically simplified its spelling, and taught three million people how to read, sets a beautiful example of the feasibility of spelling reform.
We can presume that the components of love proposed by Sternberg can be found in all cultures. Intimacy, passion, and commitment are most likely cultural universals. Evidence of this comes from many sources, including cultural anthropology, psychological research, and love poetry from across the world. What does appear to vary across cultures, however, is the emphasis placed on the different components of love and on different types of relationships. In collectivist cultures like those found in Asia and Africa, relationships with family may take priority over relationships with lovers and friends. In individualistic cultures, like those of Northern Europe and North America, friendships and romantic relationships compete with family for priority (and often win). Likewise, the concept of duty (similar to Sternberg's concept of commitment) is absolutely central to Chinese Confucianism. In contrast, judging by the mountains of romance novels, love songs, and beauty products found in North America, it is the passionate side of love that is prized in this culture.
23수특-1503
It could be argued that the 'processual' nature of personhood means that one becomes a person as one 'goes along' in society. Indeed, the African philosopher Ifeanyi Menkiti takes this position. He maintains that children are not fully human. Following Kwame Gyekye, a Ghanaian philosopher, however, I would argue that the fact that personhood must be earned is not a denial of personhood to children. It is an affirmation of the view that personhood is an ongoing process attained through interactions with others and one's community. It requires one to affirm ideals and standards thought to be constitutive of the life of a community. These are standards such as generosity, benevolence and respect. A number of sayings in some African societies refer to people who have failed to meet standards expected of a fully human person. These are sayings such as ga e se motho (Tswana) or a ku si muntu (Nguni), literally meaning 'he or she is not a person'. Because one can fall short of these standards at any stage in the life cycle, personhood could be regarded as a becoming. It is an unpredictable, open-ended process during which personhood may be achieved, lost, and regained, depending on a person's circumstances.
23수특-1504
Some countries grow cash crops. These are crops that are in high demand and can be grown in large quantities in specific areas of the world. For example, sugar needs a hot, damp climate; coffee needs a hot climate, rainfall, and higher mountain elevations. Tea needs to grow on hillsides in rainy areas. Bananas grow well in tropical environments. Because there is a worldwide demand for specific items such as these, the farmers in tropical countries grow as much of these commodities as they can. These cash crops are sold all around the world and bring in a lot of money, but there are risks to specializing in just one commodity for trade. If these farmers grow too much of a particular cash crop, that creates more supply than demand, which drops the price of the commodity. If the climate is bad, and the cash crop does not grow well one year, that hurts the country selling it because that crop may be the only one the country provides in large enough quantities to make a living from.
23수특-1505
Some might have had the impression that early scientists like Newton and Galileo belonged to a small sect that conjured science out of the blue as a result of mystical investigation. This wasn't so. Their work did not take place in a cultural vacuum: it was the product of many ancient traditions. One of these was Greek philosophy, which encouraged the belief that the world could be explained by logic, reasoning, and mathematics. Another was agriculture, from which people learned about order and chaos by observing the cycles and rhythms of nature, interrupted periodically by sudden and unpredictable disasters. And then there were religions which encouraged belief in a created world order. The founding assumption of science is that the physical universe is neither random nor absurd; it is not just a meaningless jumble of objects and phenomena randomly placed side by side. Rather, there is a coherent scheme of things. This is often expressed by the simple saying that there is order in nature. But scientists have gone beyond this vague notion to formulate a system of well-defined laws.
23수특-1506
In English, many spelling errors could be avoided if we systematically transcribed each sound with a fixed letter. For instance, if we were to avoid writing the sound f with both the letter "f" and with "ph," life would be much simpler. There is little doubt that we could easily get rid of this and many other useless redundancies whose acquisition eats up many years of childhood. In fact, this is the timid direction that American spelling reform took when it simplified the irregular British spellings of "behaviour" or "analyse" into "behavior" and "analyze." Many more steps could have been taken along the same lines. As expert readers, we cease to be aware of the absurdity of our spelling. Even a letter as simple as "x" is unnecessary, as it stands for two phonemes ks that already have their own spelling. In Turkiye, one takes a "taksi." That country, which in the space of one year adopted the Roman alphabet, drastically simplified its spelling, and taught three million people how to read, sets a beautiful example of the feasibility of spelling reform.
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232_s3 본문읽기 10
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 12. 00:43
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23수특-1401
Random sampling doesn't mean just choosing the people to participate in the study haphazardly - there's a difference between the meaning of the word 'random' in everyday use and its meaning in statistics and research methods. A random sample is a sample in which every member of the population has an equally likely chance of being selected for the study ─ and that isn't as easy as it sounds. Most sampling methods will unconsciously favour some people, and not others. Picking names at random out of a telephone directory means that people who are ex-directory or who don't use landlines are not going to be included. In a psychological study, that could introduce a bias, because those people may be different from others in some important way ─ for example, by being younger, or more suspicious of strangers.
23수특-1402
Spatial position can be indicative of social status. Historical analyses of hundreds of paintings indicate that when two people appear in the same picture the more dominant, powerful person is usually facing to the right. For example, relative to men, women are more often displayed showing the left cheek, consistent with gender roles that consider them as less agentic. In other words, traditionally weak and submissive characters have been assigned to their respective place by where they are situated in space. From the 15th century to the 20th century, however, this gender bias in paintings has become less pronounced, therefore paralleling increasingly modern views of women's role in society.
23수특-1403
Within travel destinations, it is not uncommon to see higher sticker prices in areas most frequented by tourists; prices are much lower elsewhere where locals shop. A few smart tourists soon learn to get away from these "tourist traps" to find better deals where there are not as many tourists. Most tourists will not, because it doesn't pay to spend their scarce vacation time attempting to find cheaper restaurants, souvenirs, and so on outside the tourist areas. If the time spent in searching and shopping for the best deals is included as part of the prices of the purchases, "prices" are actually lower in the tourist areas for most tourists. In sum, locational price differences are generally not considered price discrimination.
23수특-1404
The desire for esteem can be used effectively by society to influence how people act. Systems of prestige are found in all cultures, and in general prestige is used to recognize and reward people who do what is most useful to the culture. People will labor for years, even decades, in the hope of securing the esteem of their fellows and the accompanying right to think well of themselves. By linking prestige and esteem to particular activities or accomplishments, a culture can direct many people to devote their energies in those directions. It is no accident that in small societies struggling for survival, prestige comes with bringing in large amounts of protein (hunting) or defeating the most dangerous enemies (fighting). By the same token, the prestige of motherhood probably rises and falls with the society's need to increase population, and the prestige of entertainers rises and falls with how much time and money the population can devote to leisure activities.
23수특-1501
What do we want to hear when asking the question why John slammed the door? Probably not that John put more than average energy into his act, giving the door more speed (which resulted in a heavy collision of the door with the doorpost, a loud noise and the lamp rocking back and forth). We normally are not interested in a report of the chain of causes and effects leading up to the slamming. Neither do we expect to hear a report about micro-processes in John's body causing his movements. The why-question asks for reasons ― 'He felt offended', for instance. Even when we think in a materialistic frame of mind that the state of being offended can be traced in John's brain, we usually will not be interested in an answer in neurological terms. So, normally, in our day-to-day why-questions about people's actions we expect to hear about their reasons.
Random sampling doesn't mean just choosing the people to participate in the study haphazardly - there's a difference between the meaning of the word 'random' in everyday use and its meaning in statistics and research methods. A random sample is a sample in which every member of the population has an equally likely chance of being selected for the study ─ and that isn't as easy as it sounds. Most sampling methods will unconsciously favour some people, and not others. Picking names at random out of a telephone directory means that people who are ex-directory or who don't use landlines are not going to be included. In a psychological study, that could introduce a bias, because those people may be different from others in some important way ─ for example, by being younger, or more suspicious of strangers.
23수특-1402
Spatial position can be indicative of social status. Historical analyses of hundreds of paintings indicate that when two people appear in the same picture the more dominant, powerful person is usually facing to the right. For example, relative to men, women are more often displayed showing the left cheek, consistent with gender roles that consider them as less agentic. In other words, traditionally weak and submissive characters have been assigned to their respective place by where they are situated in space. From the 15th century to the 20th century, however, this gender bias in paintings has become less pronounced, therefore paralleling increasingly modern views of women's role in society.
23수특-1403
Within travel destinations, it is not uncommon to see higher sticker prices in areas most frequented by tourists; prices are much lower elsewhere where locals shop. A few smart tourists soon learn to get away from these "tourist traps" to find better deals where there are not as many tourists. Most tourists will not, because it doesn't pay to spend their scarce vacation time attempting to find cheaper restaurants, souvenirs, and so on outside the tourist areas. If the time spent in searching and shopping for the best deals is included as part of the prices of the purchases, "prices" are actually lower in the tourist areas for most tourists. In sum, locational price differences are generally not considered price discrimination.
23수특-1404
The desire for esteem can be used effectively by society to influence how people act. Systems of prestige are found in all cultures, and in general prestige is used to recognize and reward people who do what is most useful to the culture. People will labor for years, even decades, in the hope of securing the esteem of their fellows and the accompanying right to think well of themselves. By linking prestige and esteem to particular activities or accomplishments, a culture can direct many people to devote their energies in those directions. It is no accident that in small societies struggling for survival, prestige comes with bringing in large amounts of protein (hunting) or defeating the most dangerous enemies (fighting). By the same token, the prestige of motherhood probably rises and falls with the society's need to increase population, and the prestige of entertainers rises and falls with how much time and money the population can devote to leisure activities.
23수특-1501
What do we want to hear when asking the question why John slammed the door? Probably not that John put more than average energy into his act, giving the door more speed (which resulted in a heavy collision of the door with the doorpost, a loud noise and the lamp rocking back and forth). We normally are not interested in a report of the chain of causes and effects leading up to the slamming. Neither do we expect to hear a report about micro-processes in John's body causing his movements. The why-question asks for reasons ― 'He felt offended', for instance. Even when we think in a materialistic frame of mind that the state of being offended can be traced in John's brain, we usually will not be interested in an answer in neurological terms. So, normally, in our day-to-day why-questions about people's actions we expect to hear about their reasons.
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232_s3 본문읽기 5
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 12. 00:43
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23수특-9Gateway
William Buckland (1784-1856) was well known as one of the greatest geologists in his time. His birthplace, Axminster in Britain, was rich with fossils, and as a child, he naturally became interested in fossils while collecting them. In 1801, Buckland won a scholarship and was admitted to Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He developed his scientific knowledge there while attending John Kidd's lectures on mineralogy and chemistry. After Kidd resigned his position, Buckland was appointed his successor at the college. Buckland used representative samples and large-scale geological maps in his lectures, which made his lectures more lively. In 1824, he announced the discovery of the bones of a giant creature, and he named it Megalosaurus, or 'great lizard'. He won the prize from the Geological Society due to his achievements in geology.
23수특-901
Southern sea lions are seals with small, clearly visible external ears. They are much more mobile on land than true seals, being able to rotate their rear flippers sideways to propel their bodies forward. Sea lions can move quite fast in this manner. A fully grown southern sea lion bull is much larger and more impressive than his northern cousin, the California sea lion. This massive animal measures well over 2 m long and weighs up to half a tonne. His enormous neck is decorated with a shaggy mane; hence the name 'sea lion', which also refers to his roar. The elegant, nearly yellowish females that make up his harem weigh roughly half the average weight of an adult male, but then they expend less energy. From the time he comes ashore in December to when he leaves in March, the bull sea lion neither eats nor sleeps for more than a few minutes at a time: guarding his harem is a full-time job.
23수특-902
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet was born in Philadelphia on December 10, 1787. His family moved to Hartford, Connecticut, where he attended the Hartford Grammar School. He entered Yale College in 1802 and graduated the youngest in his class. Gallaudet became interested in the education of deaf people after meeting Alice Cogswell, the deaf daughter of a neighbor. With funding from Cogswell's father and others, Gallaudet went to Europe in 1815 to learn how to teach deaf children. Dissatisfied by what he saw in British schools for deaf people, Gallaudet visited a school in Paris. There, he received training from deaf teachers Jean Massieu and Laurent Clerc. Gallaudet accompanied Laurent Clerc back to Hartford in 1816 and established the first school for the deaf in the United States in 1817, now known as the American School for the Deaf. Gallaudet served as the institution's principal until 1830. He married one of his former students, Sofia Fowler, and had eight children.
23수특-903
William Black was born in Glasgow, Scotland. His father, a successful merchant, sent him to the School of Art at Glasgow, but Black pursued journalism instead of painting. As a teenager he began writing essays for the local Glasgow newspapers. Some of Black's early articles were on well-known 19th-century English writers and thinkers such as Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin. His early novel James Merle (1864) made little impression. Black eventually left Glasgow for London, where he began to write for another paper, the Morning Star. In 1865, he married Augusta Wenzel, who died in childbirth the following year. Black then went to Europe as a foreign correspondent to cover the so-called Seven Weeks' War, a conflict between Austria and Prussia. After returning to London, he continued to work as a journalist but also began to have success as a novelist. Black set his novels in the Scottish countryside and used a great deal of local color, traditions, and dialect, often setting up a dramatic tension between his rural and his city-bred characters.
23수특-904
Pi Day has been celebrated annually on 14 March since 1988. The brainchild of Larry Shaw, a physicist at the San Francisco Exploratorium, the date 14 March was chosen because the American pattern of writing dates is to put the month before the day, so that 14 March is written as 3/14, corresponding to the pattern of the first three digits of π, 3.14 (three point one four). In 2009, the US House of Representatives passed a resolution recognising 14 March as National Pi Day. The date has attracted increasing worldwide publicity and is celebrated in a vast variety of ways, particularly in schools and colleges, and involves the inevitable consumption of all kinds of pies as well as competitions to memorise and recite as many of the digits of π as possible. Pi Day in 2015 was particularly significant because the date corresponded to the first five digits of π, 3.1415.
William Buckland (1784-1856) was well known as one of the greatest geologists in his time. His birthplace, Axminster in Britain, was rich with fossils, and as a child, he naturally became interested in fossils while collecting them. In 1801, Buckland won a scholarship and was admitted to Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He developed his scientific knowledge there while attending John Kidd's lectures on mineralogy and chemistry. After Kidd resigned his position, Buckland was appointed his successor at the college. Buckland used representative samples and large-scale geological maps in his lectures, which made his lectures more lively. In 1824, he announced the discovery of the bones of a giant creature, and he named it Megalosaurus, or 'great lizard'. He won the prize from the Geological Society due to his achievements in geology.
23수특-901
Southern sea lions are seals with small, clearly visible external ears. They are much more mobile on land than true seals, being able to rotate their rear flippers sideways to propel their bodies forward. Sea lions can move quite fast in this manner. A fully grown southern sea lion bull is much larger and more impressive than his northern cousin, the California sea lion. This massive animal measures well over 2 m long and weighs up to half a tonne. His enormous neck is decorated with a shaggy mane; hence the name 'sea lion', which also refers to his roar. The elegant, nearly yellowish females that make up his harem weigh roughly half the average weight of an adult male, but then they expend less energy. From the time he comes ashore in December to when he leaves in March, the bull sea lion neither eats nor sleeps for more than a few minutes at a time: guarding his harem is a full-time job.
23수특-902
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet was born in Philadelphia on December 10, 1787. His family moved to Hartford, Connecticut, where he attended the Hartford Grammar School. He entered Yale College in 1802 and graduated the youngest in his class. Gallaudet became interested in the education of deaf people after meeting Alice Cogswell, the deaf daughter of a neighbor. With funding from Cogswell's father and others, Gallaudet went to Europe in 1815 to learn how to teach deaf children. Dissatisfied by what he saw in British schools for deaf people, Gallaudet visited a school in Paris. There, he received training from deaf teachers Jean Massieu and Laurent Clerc. Gallaudet accompanied Laurent Clerc back to Hartford in 1816 and established the first school for the deaf in the United States in 1817, now known as the American School for the Deaf. Gallaudet served as the institution's principal until 1830. He married one of his former students, Sofia Fowler, and had eight children.
23수특-903
William Black was born in Glasgow, Scotland. His father, a successful merchant, sent him to the School of Art at Glasgow, but Black pursued journalism instead of painting. As a teenager he began writing essays for the local Glasgow newspapers. Some of Black's early articles were on well-known 19th-century English writers and thinkers such as Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin. His early novel James Merle (1864) made little impression. Black eventually left Glasgow for London, where he began to write for another paper, the Morning Star. In 1865, he married Augusta Wenzel, who died in childbirth the following year. Black then went to Europe as a foreign correspondent to cover the so-called Seven Weeks' War, a conflict between Austria and Prussia. After returning to London, he continued to work as a journalist but also began to have success as a novelist. Black set his novels in the Scottish countryside and used a great deal of local color, traditions, and dialect, often setting up a dramatic tension between his rural and his city-bred characters.
23수특-904
Pi Day has been celebrated annually on 14 March since 1988. The brainchild of Larry Shaw, a physicist at the San Francisco Exploratorium, the date 14 March was chosen because the American pattern of writing dates is to put the month before the day, so that 14 March is written as 3/14, corresponding to the pattern of the first three digits of π, 3.14 (three point one four). In 2009, the US House of Representatives passed a resolution recognising 14 March as National Pi Day. The date has attracted increasing worldwide publicity and is celebrated in a vast variety of ways, particularly in schools and colleges, and involves the inevitable consumption of all kinds of pies as well as competitions to memorise and recite as many of the digits of π as possible. Pi Day in 2015 was particularly significant because the date corresponded to the first five digits of π, 3.1415.
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232_d2 본문읽기 20
본문 DB2023. 5. 11. 16:46
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리마실전-405
One use remains to astronomy: it continues to play a crucial role in our discovery of the laws of nature. It was the problem of the motion of the planets that led Newton to the discovery of his laws of motion and gravitation. The fact that atoms emit and absorb light at only certain wavelengths, which in the twentieth century led to the development of quantum mechanics, was discovered in the early nineteenth century in observations of the spectrum of the Sun. Later in the nineteenth century, these solar observations revealed the existence of new elements, such as helium, that were previously unknown on Earth. Early in the twentieth century, Einstein's General Theory of Relativity was tested astronomically, at first by comparison of his theory's predictions with the observed motion of the planet Mercury, and then through the successful prediction of the deflection of starlight by the gravitational field of the Sun.
리마실전-406
As might be true in any big family, the Galloanserae clan has some gorgeous and some plain-looking members. Interestingly, the most colorful Galloanserae males may not be passing on the best genes to offspring, according to a recent study. "There have been lots of theories that the ornaments, the beautiful colors and big tails, are owned by the most fit males," says evolutionary biologist Judith Mank. "We were testing that theory." Mank and her colleagues analyzed genetic materials from six species of birds, both gorgeous and plain. In the gorgeous-looking birds they found a rapidly evolving genome marked by mild gene mutations, which can cause inferior characteristics; in the plain-looking ones they didn't find that. When females mate with gorgeous-looking males, those genetic flaws are passed on. That may affect the species' prospects in the future.
리마실전-407
How does "batching" tasks work? Suppose the issue on your mind right now is the excessive workload your team's currently facing. Everyone's worn down. You're catching your breath while having dinner in a buzzing restaurant with an open kitchen, and you reflect on those analogy-seeking questions while you're waiting for your food. First, you notice that the kitchen staff are deluged with customer orders, like your own team. What's different is that the restaurant staff seems pretty calm, despite the demands they're facing. And while your team allocates work depending on who's got spare capacity, each person in the kitchen has a clear job to do: some make salads, others hot food or desserts. What does that make you think? You consider that maybe you could do more to tag each team member to particular types of requests, so that everyone isn't flipping from one thing to another all the time. You think that this might reduce people's stress. An idea takes shape in your mind.
리마실전-408
The first clue that something is amiss in the world of elephants is the lack of older group members. In a species whose wild longevity is easily 50 or 60 years, poachers slaughtering the animals for their tusks has driven the median age of the African elephant down to 35.9 years. The animals that manage to survive poaching are likely to be orphans, belonging to shattered family units that no longer have a matriarchal leader. These leaderless groups tend to gather, perhaps turning to their instinct of ganging up to defend themselves against primitive humans. In ages past, these aggregations were temporary, and elephants dispersed when the danger was gone. In modern-day Africa, however, where elephants are under continual stress, the groups no longer break up.
리마실전-409
If we want to rein in the power of our belief biases, and our blind trust in our own intuition, we have to be aware of the psychological phenomenon of belief perseverance. Once we have decided that we believe something, we will tend to keep on believing it, even in the face of disconfirming evidence. In 1979, the psychologist Charles Lord and his colleagues provided a classic study illustrating how difficult it is to change beliefs. They studied people with opposing views on capital punishment. They gave both groups two sets of research findings: one set that supported the claim that the death penalty deters crime and the other set refuting that position. The subjects ended up being more impressed with the studies that supported their original beliefs. Thus, instead of leading to a more mindful consideration of the issue, the mix of studies on both sides showed that the pro- and anti-death-penalty groups strengthened their original convictions.
One use remains to astronomy: it continues to play a crucial role in our discovery of the laws of nature. It was the problem of the motion of the planets that led Newton to the discovery of his laws of motion and gravitation. The fact that atoms emit and absorb light at only certain wavelengths, which in the twentieth century led to the development of quantum mechanics, was discovered in the early nineteenth century in observations of the spectrum of the Sun. Later in the nineteenth century, these solar observations revealed the existence of new elements, such as helium, that were previously unknown on Earth. Early in the twentieth century, Einstein's General Theory of Relativity was tested astronomically, at first by comparison of his theory's predictions with the observed motion of the planet Mercury, and then through the successful prediction of the deflection of starlight by the gravitational field of the Sun.
리마실전-406
As might be true in any big family, the Galloanserae clan has some gorgeous and some plain-looking members. Interestingly, the most colorful Galloanserae males may not be passing on the best genes to offspring, according to a recent study. "There have been lots of theories that the ornaments, the beautiful colors and big tails, are owned by the most fit males," says evolutionary biologist Judith Mank. "We were testing that theory." Mank and her colleagues analyzed genetic materials from six species of birds, both gorgeous and plain. In the gorgeous-looking birds they found a rapidly evolving genome marked by mild gene mutations, which can cause inferior characteristics; in the plain-looking ones they didn't find that. When females mate with gorgeous-looking males, those genetic flaws are passed on. That may affect the species' prospects in the future.
리마실전-407
How does "batching" tasks work? Suppose the issue on your mind right now is the excessive workload your team's currently facing. Everyone's worn down. You're catching your breath while having dinner in a buzzing restaurant with an open kitchen, and you reflect on those analogy-seeking questions while you're waiting for your food. First, you notice that the kitchen staff are deluged with customer orders, like your own team. What's different is that the restaurant staff seems pretty calm, despite the demands they're facing. And while your team allocates work depending on who's got spare capacity, each person in the kitchen has a clear job to do: some make salads, others hot food or desserts. What does that make you think? You consider that maybe you could do more to tag each team member to particular types of requests, so that everyone isn't flipping from one thing to another all the time. You think that this might reduce people's stress. An idea takes shape in your mind.
리마실전-408
The first clue that something is amiss in the world of elephants is the lack of older group members. In a species whose wild longevity is easily 50 or 60 years, poachers slaughtering the animals for their tusks has driven the median age of the African elephant down to 35.9 years. The animals that manage to survive poaching are likely to be orphans, belonging to shattered family units that no longer have a matriarchal leader. These leaderless groups tend to gather, perhaps turning to their instinct of ganging up to defend themselves against primitive humans. In ages past, these aggregations were temporary, and elephants dispersed when the danger was gone. In modern-day Africa, however, where elephants are under continual stress, the groups no longer break up.
리마실전-409
If we want to rein in the power of our belief biases, and our blind trust in our own intuition, we have to be aware of the psychological phenomenon of belief perseverance. Once we have decided that we believe something, we will tend to keep on believing it, even in the face of disconfirming evidence. In 1979, the psychologist Charles Lord and his colleagues provided a classic study illustrating how difficult it is to change beliefs. They studied people with opposing views on capital punishment. They gave both groups two sets of research findings: one set that supported the claim that the death penalty deters crime and the other set refuting that position. The subjects ended up being more impressed with the studies that supported their original beliefs. Thus, instead of leading to a more mindful consideration of the issue, the mix of studies on both sides showed that the pro- and anti-death-penalty groups strengthened their original convictions.
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232_d2 본문읽기 15
본문 DB2023. 5. 11. 16:46
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esp1-605
The final question is this: Do we really have to go to Mars, spending such enormous resources and risking people's lives? That is a reasonable question. Experts answer by mentioning two kinds of benefits Martian exploration may bring: practical benefits and a sense of our shared destiny as the human race. Practical benefits are economic, educational, and political. Space travel stimulates industry and draws people into careers in science and engineering. And while space exploration is a collaboration between countries to cover its high cost, having a space program raises any country's standing on the world stage. A sense of our shared destiny as the human race can be understood when considering the increasingly exhausted resources on Earth. We humans need to find ways to survive before we consume all the available resources on Earth. That is our shared destiny. Martian exploration can be seen as a step toward a human presence on another planet. It is not an easy but a worthy dream for humanity. "You can't really measure the value," says a scientist involved in a Martian project. "If money is our only concern, everyone would study business. But we also want to give meaning to our lives. That's why dreams and passion appeal to humanity."
리마실전-401
Late at night Dave had gone down to the beach to see if everything was all right with his boat. As he came back up the small path leading to his cabin, he suddenly heard a banging noise. A chill ran down his spine. Slowly, he walked towards it and pointed his flashlight in that direction. The light fell onto a bear in front of the cabin, carefully searching the garbage can for remainders of food. He went to his car, started it and slowly drove towards the animal. The headlights were focused on the bear, which seemed not to be bothered in the least. Then Dave honked his horn until the bear finally ran away. After the animal disappeared into the darkness, Dave exhaled deeply. After he managed to go in the cabin and lock the door, he slumped onto the floor.
리마실전-402
Over the last couple of decades it has been agreed that inflammation in the body plays an important role in the accumulation of blocked arteries. To prove this, Richard Watt and his team analyzed data from over 11,000 adults who took part in the Scottish Healthy Survey. The results showed that their oral health behaviors were generally good, with 62% of participants saying they visit the dentist every six months, and 71% reporting that they brush their teeth twice a day. Once the data were adjusted for established heart disease risk factors such as social class, obesity, smoking and family history of heart disease, the authors found that individuals who reported less frequent toothbrushing had a 70% higher risk of heart disease compared to individuals who brushed their teeth twice a day, although the overall risk remained quite low.
리마실전-403
The fact that construction is a project-based industry is an important issue. When attempting to manage a dynamic, changing environment, such as a construction site, it should be kept in mind that there needs to be an appropriate organization structure to deal with the changing nature of the project. As it moves from design to construction, and as problems arise (such as late delivery of materials) on a day-to-day basis, there is a need for rapid decision- making and a flexible form of organization. This engenders a free, independent spirit in construction site workers and has, traditionally, led to a disregard for authority. In many cases, this disregard has been taken too far and caused problems.
리마실전-404
In the language of urban design, a place is legible if it is easy to make sense of. Places can also be intelligible if they are well connected to other places, either visually or topographically. An intelligible place can tell you a lot about the rest of the space and allow you to think about your route. Large supermarkets make a virtue of being unintelligible, allowing them to lead shoppers precisely where they want them to go. The whole point of mazes is that they are both unintelligible and illegible; cities and public buildings should be the very opposite, though always allowing for corners of mystery and intrigue. Libraries seem to struggle on both measures, perhaps because there are so many ways you can stack books. Among the exceptions to this rule is the British Library in London, whose reading rooms adjoin a vast atrium; you only have to look up to know where you are.
The final question is this: Do we really have to go to Mars, spending such enormous resources and risking people's lives? That is a reasonable question. Experts answer by mentioning two kinds of benefits Martian exploration may bring: practical benefits and a sense of our shared destiny as the human race. Practical benefits are economic, educational, and political. Space travel stimulates industry and draws people into careers in science and engineering. And while space exploration is a collaboration between countries to cover its high cost, having a space program raises any country's standing on the world stage. A sense of our shared destiny as the human race can be understood when considering the increasingly exhausted resources on Earth. We humans need to find ways to survive before we consume all the available resources on Earth. That is our shared destiny. Martian exploration can be seen as a step toward a human presence on another planet. It is not an easy but a worthy dream for humanity. "You can't really measure the value," says a scientist involved in a Martian project. "If money is our only concern, everyone would study business. But we also want to give meaning to our lives. That's why dreams and passion appeal to humanity."
리마실전-401
Late at night Dave had gone down to the beach to see if everything was all right with his boat. As he came back up the small path leading to his cabin, he suddenly heard a banging noise. A chill ran down his spine. Slowly, he walked towards it and pointed his flashlight in that direction. The light fell onto a bear in front of the cabin, carefully searching the garbage can for remainders of food. He went to his car, started it and slowly drove towards the animal. The headlights were focused on the bear, which seemed not to be bothered in the least. Then Dave honked his horn until the bear finally ran away. After the animal disappeared into the darkness, Dave exhaled deeply. After he managed to go in the cabin and lock the door, he slumped onto the floor.
리마실전-402
Over the last couple of decades it has been agreed that inflammation in the body plays an important role in the accumulation of blocked arteries. To prove this, Richard Watt and his team analyzed data from over 11,000 adults who took part in the Scottish Healthy Survey. The results showed that their oral health behaviors were generally good, with 62% of participants saying they visit the dentist every six months, and 71% reporting that they brush their teeth twice a day. Once the data were adjusted for established heart disease risk factors such as social class, obesity, smoking and family history of heart disease, the authors found that individuals who reported less frequent toothbrushing had a 70% higher risk of heart disease compared to individuals who brushed their teeth twice a day, although the overall risk remained quite low.
리마실전-403
The fact that construction is a project-based industry is an important issue. When attempting to manage a dynamic, changing environment, such as a construction site, it should be kept in mind that there needs to be an appropriate organization structure to deal with the changing nature of the project. As it moves from design to construction, and as problems arise (such as late delivery of materials) on a day-to-day basis, there is a need for rapid decision- making and a flexible form of organization. This engenders a free, independent spirit in construction site workers and has, traditionally, led to a disregard for authority. In many cases, this disregard has been taken too far and caused problems.
리마실전-404
In the language of urban design, a place is legible if it is easy to make sense of. Places can also be intelligible if they are well connected to other places, either visually or topographically. An intelligible place can tell you a lot about the rest of the space and allow you to think about your route. Large supermarkets make a virtue of being unintelligible, allowing them to lead shoppers precisely where they want them to go. The whole point of mazes is that they are both unintelligible and illegible; cities and public buildings should be the very opposite, though always allowing for corners of mystery and intrigue. Libraries seem to struggle on both measures, perhaps because there are so many ways you can stack books. Among the exceptions to this rule is the British Library in London, whose reading rooms adjoin a vast atrium; you only have to look up to know where you are.
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232_d2 본문읽기 10
본문 DB2023. 5. 11. 16:46
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esp1-406
People Build Trust and Make Connections. Stella is a retired designer who started a second life as a host to international travelers. When her husband passed away, she came down with depression. She started to share the room her husband used to occupy. Meeting new people from all over the world helped her recover from her grief. Now she enjoys telling her guests stories about the neighborhood and preparing them delicious local breakfasts, trying to make them feel at home. She has made friends with many guests and stays in touch with some of them. For sociable souls, meeting new people is a big part of the charm. In the age of "virtual" everything, more and more things are possible without ever meeting face to face with other people. But sharing assumes human interaction by its definition and appeals to the basic human needs for community. The core of a sharing economy is people directly dealing with each other, so trust between the parties involved is essential. Social network services play an important role, giving information on participants. Safety issues are important when dealing with strangers. Along with the background checks carried out by platform providers, online reviews and ratings are usually posted by both parties. The remarkable thing is how well the system usually works.
esp1-601
In 1969, the spacecraft Apollo 11 landed humans on the moon for the very first time in history. The world has had to wait for half a century since then before seriously considering going to Mars. The delay has been because Mars is simply too far from Earth, and we have had only limited knowledge about it. With the development of science and technology over the last several decades, projects involving landing a human on Mars have begun. With many industrialized countries participating in those projects in one form or another, scientists are making progress, but big challenges still remain.
esp1-602
Because Mars is more than 100 times farther than the moon from Earth, reaching Mars requires serious hardware including a powerful rocket equipped with extremely fast computers. For this purpose, a new generation of spacecraft is being designed and built at the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) of the United States. Even with such powerful rockets, however, a round trip to Mars would be difficult because it would take six months to go there. Even when the two planets are closest in their orbits, a round trip would take at least one year. Today's rockets and spacecraft cannot hold enough fuel for such an extended journey. While scientists are working to get around this problem, a European company has come up with a plan to launch a one-way trip with four astronauts to Mars, with additional crews joining them every two years to form a colony. The world will have to wait several years to see if the plan works.
esp1-603
Humans need water, food, and oxygen to survive. We have much more to learn about Mars, although much has already been discovered. The most exciting finding about Mars is water, one of the most vital ingredients for life. NASA scientists have confirmed that Mars once had more water than the Antarctic Ocean and to this day some of it is locked up in Martian polar ice caps. Scientists are trying to find effective ways to get water from the ice. The next thing humans require is food. To produce food on Mars, we need special farming technologies. We can apply a special growing system that has been tested on the International Space Station (ISS). Of course, farming in space is not easy. Plants can be grown in space, but they require very careful management of gases, water, and dirt. On Mars, the challenge will be more complex than on the ISS. In addition to recovering water that is locked up in ice, the poor quality of the soil and the weak gravity of Mars need to be overcome. Therefore, success in farming on Mars might take decades or even centuries. Until then, food could be printed by three-dimensional (3D) food printers. With proteins and carbohydrates from various sources such as insects and leaves, 3D food printers can print pizzas and bread, among other foods. A scientist at NASA predicts that there will be 25 to 50 basic food items. "We're not planning for food at fancy restaurants, but just healthy and nutritious meals," he says. As for oxygen, plants might be used to produce it, and human waste might be recycled to provide nutrients for the plants. Until there would be enough plants to produce sufficient amount of oxygen, NASA plans to use specially designed machines to convert the carbon dioxide in the Martian air into oxygen.
esp1-604
Another important issue involved in going to and living on Mars is our health. Our bodies work differently in space. On Earth, gravity drags bodily fluids downwards, but in space this does not happen. The heart has to work harder during space travel and on Mars to compensate for the weak or zero gravity. In addition, weightlessness in space weakens bones and muscles. Astronauts on the ISS do a lot of exercise to avoid these problems, with additional help from drugs and artificial gravity from a spinning device. Similar measures will be used on Mars. One great threat to our body in space and on Mars is cosmic radiation. When we are outside the protection of Earth's air and magnetic field, we are exposed to cosmic radiation that damages our DNA and increases our risk for cancer. The plan proposed so far is to cover space vehicles with radiation blocking materials and to build shelters beneath the surface of Mars.
People Build Trust and Make Connections. Stella is a retired designer who started a second life as a host to international travelers. When her husband passed away, she came down with depression. She started to share the room her husband used to occupy. Meeting new people from all over the world helped her recover from her grief. Now she enjoys telling her guests stories about the neighborhood and preparing them delicious local breakfasts, trying to make them feel at home. She has made friends with many guests and stays in touch with some of them. For sociable souls, meeting new people is a big part of the charm. In the age of "virtual" everything, more and more things are possible without ever meeting face to face with other people. But sharing assumes human interaction by its definition and appeals to the basic human needs for community. The core of a sharing economy is people directly dealing with each other, so trust between the parties involved is essential. Social network services play an important role, giving information on participants. Safety issues are important when dealing with strangers. Along with the background checks carried out by platform providers, online reviews and ratings are usually posted by both parties. The remarkable thing is how well the system usually works.
esp1-601
In 1969, the spacecraft Apollo 11 landed humans on the moon for the very first time in history. The world has had to wait for half a century since then before seriously considering going to Mars. The delay has been because Mars is simply too far from Earth, and we have had only limited knowledge about it. With the development of science and technology over the last several decades, projects involving landing a human on Mars have begun. With many industrialized countries participating in those projects in one form or another, scientists are making progress, but big challenges still remain.
esp1-602
Because Mars is more than 100 times farther than the moon from Earth, reaching Mars requires serious hardware including a powerful rocket equipped with extremely fast computers. For this purpose, a new generation of spacecraft is being designed and built at the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) of the United States. Even with such powerful rockets, however, a round trip to Mars would be difficult because it would take six months to go there. Even when the two planets are closest in their orbits, a round trip would take at least one year. Today's rockets and spacecraft cannot hold enough fuel for such an extended journey. While scientists are working to get around this problem, a European company has come up with a plan to launch a one-way trip with four astronauts to Mars, with additional crews joining them every two years to form a colony. The world will have to wait several years to see if the plan works.
esp1-603
Humans need water, food, and oxygen to survive. We have much more to learn about Mars, although much has already been discovered. The most exciting finding about Mars is water, one of the most vital ingredients for life. NASA scientists have confirmed that Mars once had more water than the Antarctic Ocean and to this day some of it is locked up in Martian polar ice caps. Scientists are trying to find effective ways to get water from the ice. The next thing humans require is food. To produce food on Mars, we need special farming technologies. We can apply a special growing system that has been tested on the International Space Station (ISS). Of course, farming in space is not easy. Plants can be grown in space, but they require very careful management of gases, water, and dirt. On Mars, the challenge will be more complex than on the ISS. In addition to recovering water that is locked up in ice, the poor quality of the soil and the weak gravity of Mars need to be overcome. Therefore, success in farming on Mars might take decades or even centuries. Until then, food could be printed by three-dimensional (3D) food printers. With proteins and carbohydrates from various sources such as insects and leaves, 3D food printers can print pizzas and bread, among other foods. A scientist at NASA predicts that there will be 25 to 50 basic food items. "We're not planning for food at fancy restaurants, but just healthy and nutritious meals," he says. As for oxygen, plants might be used to produce it, and human waste might be recycled to provide nutrients for the plants. Until there would be enough plants to produce sufficient amount of oxygen, NASA plans to use specially designed machines to convert the carbon dioxide in the Martian air into oxygen.
esp1-604
Another important issue involved in going to and living on Mars is our health. Our bodies work differently in space. On Earth, gravity drags bodily fluids downwards, but in space this does not happen. The heart has to work harder during space travel and on Mars to compensate for the weak or zero gravity. In addition, weightlessness in space weakens bones and muscles. Astronauts on the ISS do a lot of exercise to avoid these problems, with additional help from drugs and artificial gravity from a spinning device. Similar measures will be used on Mars. One great threat to our body in space and on Mars is cosmic radiation. When we are outside the protection of Earth's air and magnetic field, we are exposed to cosmic radiation that damages our DNA and increases our risk for cancer. The plan proposed so far is to cover space vehicles with radiation blocking materials and to build shelters beneath the surface of Mars.
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