2262;2261 본문읽기 15
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 14. 12:49
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2262-31
Followers can be defined by their position as subordinates or by their behavior of going along with leaders' wishes. But followers also have power to lead. Followers empower leaders as well as vice versa. This has led some leadership analysts like Ronald Heifetz to avoid using the word followers and refer to the others in a power relationship as "citizens" or "constituents." Heifetz is correct that too simple a view of followers can produce misunderstanding. In modern life, most people wind up being both leaders and followers, and the categories can become quite fluid. Our behavior as followers changes as our objectives change. If I trust your judgment in music more than my own, I may follow your lead on which concert we attend (even though you may be formally my subordinate in position). But if I am an expert on fishing, you may follow my lead on where we fish, regardless of our formal positions or the fact that I followed your lead on concerts yesterday.
2262-32
Color is an interpretation of wavelengths, one that only exists internally. And it gets stranger, because the wavelengths we're talking about involve only what we call "visible light", a spectrum of wavelengths that runs from red to violet. But visible light constitutes only a tiny fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum ― less than one ten-trillionth of it. All the rest of the spectrum ― including radio waves, microwaves, X-rays, gamma rays, cell phone conversations, wi-fi, and so on ― all of this is flowing through us right now, and we're completely unaware of it. This is because we don't have any specialized biological receptors to pick up on these signals from other parts of the spectrum. The slice of reality that we can see is limited by our biology.
2262-33
What is unusual about journalism as a profession is its lack of independence. In theory, practitioners in the classic professions, like medicine or the clergy, contain the means of production in their heads and hands, and therefore do not have to work for a company or an employer. They can draw their income directly from their clients or patients. Because the professionals hold knowledge, moreover, their clients are dependent on them. Journalists hold knowledge, but it is not theoretical in nature; one might argue that the public depends on journalists in the same way that patients depend on doctors, but in practice a journalist can serve the public usually only by working for a news organization, which can fire her or him at will. Journalists' income depends not on the public, but on the employing news organization, which often derives the large majority of its revenue from advertisers.
2262-34
In most of the world, capitalism and free markets are accepted today as constituting the best system for allocating economic resources and encouraging economic output. Nations have tried other systems, such as socialism and communism, but in many cases they have either switched wholesale to or adopted aspects of free markets. Despite the widespread acceptance of the free-market system, markets are rarely left entirely free. Government involvement takes many forms, ranging from the enactment and enforcement of laws and regulations to direct participation in the economy through entities like the U.S.'s mortgage agencies. Perhaps the most important form of government involvement, however, comes in the attempts of central banks and national treasuries to control and affect the ups and downs of economic cycles.
2262-35
Inflationary risk refers to uncertainty regarding the future real value of one's investments. Say, for instance, that you hold $100 in a bank account that has no fees and accrues no interest. If left untouched there will always be $100 in that bank account. If you keep that money in the bank for a year, during which inflation is 100 percent, you've still got $100. Only now, if you take it out and put it in your wallet, you'll only be able to purchase half the goods you could have bought a year ago. In other words, if inflation increases faster than the amount of interest you are earning, this will decrease the purchasing power of your investments over time. That's why we differentiate between nominal value and real value.
Followers can be defined by their position as subordinates or by their behavior of going along with leaders' wishes. But followers also have power to lead. Followers empower leaders as well as vice versa. This has led some leadership analysts like Ronald Heifetz to avoid using the word followers and refer to the others in a power relationship as "citizens" or "constituents." Heifetz is correct that too simple a view of followers can produce misunderstanding. In modern life, most people wind up being both leaders and followers, and the categories can become quite fluid. Our behavior as followers changes as our objectives change. If I trust your judgment in music more than my own, I may follow your lead on which concert we attend (even though you may be formally my subordinate in position). But if I am an expert on fishing, you may follow my lead on where we fish, regardless of our formal positions or the fact that I followed your lead on concerts yesterday.
2262-32
Color is an interpretation of wavelengths, one that only exists internally. And it gets stranger, because the wavelengths we're talking about involve only what we call "visible light", a spectrum of wavelengths that runs from red to violet. But visible light constitutes only a tiny fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum ― less than one ten-trillionth of it. All the rest of the spectrum ― including radio waves, microwaves, X-rays, gamma rays, cell phone conversations, wi-fi, and so on ― all of this is flowing through us right now, and we're completely unaware of it. This is because we don't have any specialized biological receptors to pick up on these signals from other parts of the spectrum. The slice of reality that we can see is limited by our biology.
2262-33
What is unusual about journalism as a profession is its lack of independence. In theory, practitioners in the classic professions, like medicine or the clergy, contain the means of production in their heads and hands, and therefore do not have to work for a company or an employer. They can draw their income directly from their clients or patients. Because the professionals hold knowledge, moreover, their clients are dependent on them. Journalists hold knowledge, but it is not theoretical in nature; one might argue that the public depends on journalists in the same way that patients depend on doctors, but in practice a journalist can serve the public usually only by working for a news organization, which can fire her or him at will. Journalists' income depends not on the public, but on the employing news organization, which often derives the large majority of its revenue from advertisers.
2262-34
In most of the world, capitalism and free markets are accepted today as constituting the best system for allocating economic resources and encouraging economic output. Nations have tried other systems, such as socialism and communism, but in many cases they have either switched wholesale to or adopted aspects of free markets. Despite the widespread acceptance of the free-market system, markets are rarely left entirely free. Government involvement takes many forms, ranging from the enactment and enforcement of laws and regulations to direct participation in the economy through entities like the U.S.'s mortgage agencies. Perhaps the most important form of government involvement, however, comes in the attempts of central banks and national treasuries to control and affect the ups and downs of economic cycles.
2262-35
Inflationary risk refers to uncertainty regarding the future real value of one's investments. Say, for instance, that you hold $100 in a bank account that has no fees and accrues no interest. If left untouched there will always be $100 in that bank account. If you keep that money in the bank for a year, during which inflation is 100 percent, you've still got $100. Only now, if you take it out and put it in your wallet, you'll only be able to purchase half the goods you could have bought a year ago. In other words, if inflation increases faster than the amount of interest you are earning, this will decrease the purchasing power of your investments over time. That's why we differentiate between nominal value and real value.
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2262;2261 본문읽기 10
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 14. 12:49
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2262-23
In the movie Groundhog Day, a weatherman played by Bill Murray is forced to relive a single day over and over again. Confronted with this seemingly endless loop, he eventually rebels against living through the same day the same way twice. He learns French, becomes a great pianist, befriends his neighbors, helps the poor. Why do we cheer him on? Because we don't want perfect predictability, even if what's on repeat is appealing. Surprise engages us. It allows us to escape autopilot. It keeps us awake to our experience. In fact, the neurotransmitter systems involved in reward are tied to the level of surprise: rewards delivered at regular, predictable times yield a lot less activity in the brain than the same rewards delivered at random unpredictable times. Surprise gratifies.
2262-24
A building is an inanimate object, but it is not an inarticulate one. Even the simplest house always makes a statement, one expressed in brick and stone, in wood and glass, rather than in words ― but no less loud and obvious. When we see a rusting trailer surrounded by weeds and abandoned cars, or a brand-new mini-mansion with a high wall, we instantly get a message. In both of these cases, though in different accents, it is "Stay Out of Here." It is not only houses, of course, that communicate with us. All kinds of buildings ― churches, museums, schools, hospitals, restaurants, and offices ― speak to us silently. Sometimes the statement is deliberate. A store or restaurant can be designed so that it welcomes mostly low-income or high-income customers. Buildings tell us what to think and how to act, though we may not register their messages consciously.
2262-26
The monarch butterfly has lovely bright colors splashed on its wings. The wings have white spots on the outer margins. The hind wings are rounded, and they are lighter in color than the front wings. The body is black with white spots. The mother butterfly lays only one egg on the underside of milkweed leaves, which hatches about three to five days later. The monarch loves to fly around in the warm sunshine, from March through October, all across the United States. The monarch cannot survive the cold winter temperatures of the northern states. So, it very wisely migrates from the northern states to the south, and hibernates. The monarch is the only insect that can fly more than four thousand kilometers to a warmer climate.
2262-29
Even though institutions like the World Bank use wealth to differentiate between "developed" and "developing" countries, they also agree that development is more than economic growth. "Development" can also include the social and environmental changes that are caused by or accompany economic growth, some of which are positive and thus may be negative. Awareness has grown ― and continues to grow ― that the question of how economic growth is affecting people and the planet needs to be addressed. Countries are slowly learning that it is cheaper and causes much less suffering to try to reduce the harmful effects of an economic activity or project at the beginning, when it is planned, than after the damage appears. To do this is not easy and is always imperfect. But an awareness of the need for such an effort indicates a greater understanding and moral concern than did the previous widespread attitude that focused only on creating new products and services.
2262-30
The most advanced military jets are fly‑by‑wire: They are so unstable that they require an automated system that can sense and act more quickly than a human operator to maintain control. Our dependence on smart technology has led to a paradox. As technology improves, it becomes more reliable and more efficient, and human operators depend on it even more. Eventually they lose focus, become distracted, and check out, leaving the system to run on its own. In the most extreme case, piloting a massive airliner could become a passive occupation, like watching TV. This is fine until something unexpected happens. The unexpected reveals the value of humans; what we bring to the table is the flexibility to handle new situations. Machines aren't collaborating in pursuit of a joint goal; they are merely serving as tools. So when the human operator gives up oversight, the system is more likely to have a serious accident.
In the movie Groundhog Day, a weatherman played by Bill Murray is forced to relive a single day over and over again. Confronted with this seemingly endless loop, he eventually rebels against living through the same day the same way twice. He learns French, becomes a great pianist, befriends his neighbors, helps the poor. Why do we cheer him on? Because we don't want perfect predictability, even if what's on repeat is appealing. Surprise engages us. It allows us to escape autopilot. It keeps us awake to our experience. In fact, the neurotransmitter systems involved in reward are tied to the level of surprise: rewards delivered at regular, predictable times yield a lot less activity in the brain than the same rewards delivered at random unpredictable times. Surprise gratifies.
2262-24
A building is an inanimate object, but it is not an inarticulate one. Even the simplest house always makes a statement, one expressed in brick and stone, in wood and glass, rather than in words ― but no less loud and obvious. When we see a rusting trailer surrounded by weeds and abandoned cars, or a brand-new mini-mansion with a high wall, we instantly get a message. In both of these cases, though in different accents, it is "Stay Out of Here." It is not only houses, of course, that communicate with us. All kinds of buildings ― churches, museums, schools, hospitals, restaurants, and offices ― speak to us silently. Sometimes the statement is deliberate. A store or restaurant can be designed so that it welcomes mostly low-income or high-income customers. Buildings tell us what to think and how to act, though we may not register their messages consciously.
2262-26
The monarch butterfly has lovely bright colors splashed on its wings. The wings have white spots on the outer margins. The hind wings are rounded, and they are lighter in color than the front wings. The body is black with white spots. The mother butterfly lays only one egg on the underside of milkweed leaves, which hatches about three to five days later. The monarch loves to fly around in the warm sunshine, from March through October, all across the United States. The monarch cannot survive the cold winter temperatures of the northern states. So, it very wisely migrates from the northern states to the south, and hibernates. The monarch is the only insect that can fly more than four thousand kilometers to a warmer climate.
2262-29
Even though institutions like the World Bank use wealth to differentiate between "developed" and "developing" countries, they also agree that development is more than economic growth. "Development" can also include the social and environmental changes that are caused by or accompany economic growth, some of which are positive and thus may be negative. Awareness has grown ― and continues to grow ― that the question of how economic growth is affecting people and the planet needs to be addressed. Countries are slowly learning that it is cheaper and causes much less suffering to try to reduce the harmful effects of an economic activity or project at the beginning, when it is planned, than after the damage appears. To do this is not easy and is always imperfect. But an awareness of the need for such an effort indicates a greater understanding and moral concern than did the previous widespread attitude that focused only on creating new products and services.
2262-30
The most advanced military jets are fly‑by‑wire: They are so unstable that they require an automated system that can sense and act more quickly than a human operator to maintain control. Our dependence on smart technology has led to a paradox. As technology improves, it becomes more reliable and more efficient, and human operators depend on it even more. Eventually they lose focus, become distracted, and check out, leaving the system to run on its own. In the most extreme case, piloting a massive airliner could become a passive occupation, like watching TV. This is fine until something unexpected happens. The unexpected reveals the value of humans; what we bring to the table is the flexibility to handle new situations. Machines aren't collaborating in pursuit of a joint goal; they are merely serving as tools. So when the human operator gives up oversight, the system is more likely to have a serious accident.
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2262;2261 본문읽기 5
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 14. 12:49
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2262-18
My name is Peter Watson, and I'm the manager of the Springton Library. Our storytelling program has been so well‑attended that we are planning to expand the program to 6 days each week. This means that we need to recruit more volunteers to read to the children. People still talk about the week you filled in for us when one of our volunteers couldn't come. You really brought those stories to life! So, would you be willing to read to the preschoolers for an hour, from 10 to 11 a.m. every Friday? I hope you will take this opportunity to let more children hear your voice. We are looking forward to your positive reply.
2262-19
I walked up to the little dark brown door and knocked. Nobody answered. I pushed on the door carefully. When the door swung open with a rusty creak, a man was standing in a back corner of the room. My hands flew over my mouth as I started to scream. He was just standing there, watching me! As my heart continued to race, I saw that he had also put his hands over his mouth. Wait a minute, It was a mirror! I took a deep breath and walked past a table to the old mirror that stood in the back of the room. I felt my heartbeat returning to normal, and calmly looked at my reflection in the mirror.
2262-20
In the rush towards individual achievement and recognition, the majority of those who make it forget their humble beginnings. They often forget those who helped them on their way up. If you forget where you came from, if you neglect those who were there for you when things were tough and slow, then your success is valueless. No one can make it up there without the help of others. There are parents, friends, advisers, and coaches that help. You need to be grateful to all of those who helped you. Gratitude is the glue that keeps you connected to others. It is the bridge that keeps you connected with those who were there for you in the past and who are likely to be there in the end. Relationships and the way you treat others determine your real success.
2262-21
For companies interested in delighting customers, exceptional value and service become part of the overall company culture. For example, year after year, Pazano ranks at or near the top of the hospitality industry in terms of customer satisfaction. The company's passion for satisfying customers is summed up in its credo, which promises that its luxury hotels will deliver a truly memorable experience. Although a customer-centered firm seeks to deliver high customer satisfaction relative to competitors, it does not attempt to maximize customer satisfaction. A company can always increase customer satisfaction by lowering its price or increasing its services. But this may result in lower profits. Thus, the purpose of marketing is to generate customer value profitably. This requires a very delicate balance: the marketer must continue to generate more customer value and satisfaction but not 'give away the house'.
2262-22
The problem with simply adopting any popular method of parenting is that it ignores the most important variable in the equation: the uniqueness of your child. So, rather than insist that one style of parenting will work with every child, we might take a page from the gardener's handbook. Just as the gardener accepts, without question or resistance, the plant's requirements and provides the right conditions each plant needs to grow and flourish, so, too, do we parents need to custom-design our parenting to fit the natural needs of each individual child. Although that may seem difficult, it is possible. Once we understand who our children really are, we can begin to figure out how to make changes in our parenting style to be more positive and accepting of each child we've been blessed to parent.
My name is Peter Watson, and I'm the manager of the Springton Library. Our storytelling program has been so well‑attended that we are planning to expand the program to 6 days each week. This means that we need to recruit more volunteers to read to the children. People still talk about the week you filled in for us when one of our volunteers couldn't come. You really brought those stories to life! So, would you be willing to read to the preschoolers for an hour, from 10 to 11 a.m. every Friday? I hope you will take this opportunity to let more children hear your voice. We are looking forward to your positive reply.
2262-19
I walked up to the little dark brown door and knocked. Nobody answered. I pushed on the door carefully. When the door swung open with a rusty creak, a man was standing in a back corner of the room. My hands flew over my mouth as I started to scream. He was just standing there, watching me! As my heart continued to race, I saw that he had also put his hands over his mouth. Wait a minute, It was a mirror! I took a deep breath and walked past a table to the old mirror that stood in the back of the room. I felt my heartbeat returning to normal, and calmly looked at my reflection in the mirror.
2262-20
In the rush towards individual achievement and recognition, the majority of those who make it forget their humble beginnings. They often forget those who helped them on their way up. If you forget where you came from, if you neglect those who were there for you when things were tough and slow, then your success is valueless. No one can make it up there without the help of others. There are parents, friends, advisers, and coaches that help. You need to be grateful to all of those who helped you. Gratitude is the glue that keeps you connected to others. It is the bridge that keeps you connected with those who were there for you in the past and who are likely to be there in the end. Relationships and the way you treat others determine your real success.
2262-21
For companies interested in delighting customers, exceptional value and service become part of the overall company culture. For example, year after year, Pazano ranks at or near the top of the hospitality industry in terms of customer satisfaction. The company's passion for satisfying customers is summed up in its credo, which promises that its luxury hotels will deliver a truly memorable experience. Although a customer-centered firm seeks to deliver high customer satisfaction relative to competitors, it does not attempt to maximize customer satisfaction. A company can always increase customer satisfaction by lowering its price or increasing its services. But this may result in lower profits. Thus, the purpose of marketing is to generate customer value profitably. This requires a very delicate balance: the marketer must continue to generate more customer value and satisfaction but not 'give away the house'.
2262-22
The problem with simply adopting any popular method of parenting is that it ignores the most important variable in the equation: the uniqueness of your child. So, rather than insist that one style of parenting will work with every child, we might take a page from the gardener's handbook. Just as the gardener accepts, without question or resistance, the plant's requirements and provides the right conditions each plant needs to grow and flourish, so, too, do we parents need to custom-design our parenting to fit the natural needs of each individual child. Although that may seem difficult, it is possible. Once we understand who our children really are, we can begin to figure out how to make changes in our parenting style to be more positive and accepting of each child we've been blessed to parent.
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2163 본문읽기 20
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 13. 20:48
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2163-35
Kinship ties continue to be important today. In modern societies such as the United States people frequently have family get-togethers, they telephone their relatives regularly, and they provide their kin with a wide variety of services. Eugene Litwak has referred to this pattern of behaviour as the 'modified extended family'. It is an extended family structure because multigenerational ties are maintained, but it is modified because it does not usually rest on co-residence between the generations and most extended families do not act as corporate groups. Although modified extended family members often live close by, the modified extended family does not require geographical proximity and ties are maintained even when kin are separated by considerable distances. In contrast to the traditional extended family where kin always live in close proximity, the members of modified extended families may freely move away from kin to seek opportunities for occupational advancement.
2163-36
Spatial reference points are larger than themselves. This isn't really a paradox: landmarks are themselves, but they also define neighborhoods around themselves. In a paradigm that has been repeated on many campuses, researchers first collect a list of campus landmarks from students. Then they ask another group of students to estimate the distances between pairs of locations, some to landmarks, some to ordinary buildings on campus. The remarkable finding is that distances from an ordinary location to a landmark are judged shorter than distances from a landmark to an ordinary location. So, people would judge the distance from Pierre's house to the Eiffel Tower to be shorter than the distance from the Eiffel Tower to Pierre's house. Like black holes, landmarks seem to pull ordinary locations toward themselves, but ordinary places do not. This asymmetry of distance estimates violates the most elementary principles of Euclidean distance, that the distance from A to B must be the same as the distance from B to A. Judgments of distance, then, are not necessarily coherent.
2163-37
A firm is deciding whether to invest in shipbuilding. If it can produce at sufficiently large scale, it knows the venture will be profitable. But one key input is low-cost steel, and it must be produced nearby. The company's decision boils down to this: if there is a steel factory close by, invest in shipbuilding; otherwise, don't invest. Now consider the thinking of potential steel investors in the region. Assume that shipyards are the only potential customers of steel. Steel producers figure they'll make money if there's a shipyard to buy their steel, but not otherwise. Now we have two possible outcomes ― what economists call "multiple equilibria."There is a "good" outcome, in which both types of investments are made, and both the shipyard and the steelmakers end up profitable and happy. Equilibrium is reached. Then there is a "bad" outcome, in which neither type of investment is made. This second outcome also is an equilibrium because the decisions not to invest reinforce each other.
2163-38
In most organizations, the employee's immediate supervisor evaluates the employee's performance. This is because the supervisor is responsible for the employee's performance, providing supervision, handing out assignments, and developing the employee. A problem, however, is that supervisors often work in locations apart from their employees and therefore are not able to observe their subordinates' performance. Should supervisors rate employees on performance dimensions they cannot observe? To eliminate this dilemma, more and more organizations are implementing assessments referred to as 360-degree evaluations. Employees are rated not only by their supervisors but by coworkers, clients or citizens, professionals in other agencies with whom they work, and subordinates. The reason for this approach is that often coworkers and clients or citizens have a greater opportunity to observe an employee's performance and are in a better position to evaluate many performance dimensions.
2163-39
The role that sleep plays in evolution is still under study. One possibility is that it is an advantageous adaptive state of decreased metabolism for an animal when there are no more pressing activities. This seems true for deeper states of inactivity such as hibernation during the winter when there are few food supplies, and a high metabolic cost to maintaining adequate temperature. It may be true in daily situations as well, for instance for a prey species to avoid predators after dark. On the other hand, the apparent universality of sleep, and the observation that mammals such as cetaceans have developed such highly complex mechanisms to preserve sleep on at least one side of the brain at a time, suggests that sleep additionally provides some vital service(s) for the organism. This is particularly true since one aspect of sleep is decreased responsiveness to the environment. If sleep is universal even when this potential price must be paid, the implication may be that it has important functions that cannot be obtained just by quiet, wakeful resting.
Kinship ties continue to be important today. In modern societies such as the United States people frequently have family get-togethers, they telephone their relatives regularly, and they provide their kin with a wide variety of services. Eugene Litwak has referred to this pattern of behaviour as the 'modified extended family'. It is an extended family structure because multigenerational ties are maintained, but it is modified because it does not usually rest on co-residence between the generations and most extended families do not act as corporate groups. Although modified extended family members often live close by, the modified extended family does not require geographical proximity and ties are maintained even when kin are separated by considerable distances. In contrast to the traditional extended family where kin always live in close proximity, the members of modified extended families may freely move away from kin to seek opportunities for occupational advancement.
2163-36
Spatial reference points are larger than themselves. This isn't really a paradox: landmarks are themselves, but they also define neighborhoods around themselves. In a paradigm that has been repeated on many campuses, researchers first collect a list of campus landmarks from students. Then they ask another group of students to estimate the distances between pairs of locations, some to landmarks, some to ordinary buildings on campus. The remarkable finding is that distances from an ordinary location to a landmark are judged shorter than distances from a landmark to an ordinary location. So, people would judge the distance from Pierre's house to the Eiffel Tower to be shorter than the distance from the Eiffel Tower to Pierre's house. Like black holes, landmarks seem to pull ordinary locations toward themselves, but ordinary places do not. This asymmetry of distance estimates violates the most elementary principles of Euclidean distance, that the distance from A to B must be the same as the distance from B to A. Judgments of distance, then, are not necessarily coherent.
2163-37
A firm is deciding whether to invest in shipbuilding. If it can produce at sufficiently large scale, it knows the venture will be profitable. But one key input is low-cost steel, and it must be produced nearby. The company's decision boils down to this: if there is a steel factory close by, invest in shipbuilding; otherwise, don't invest. Now consider the thinking of potential steel investors in the region. Assume that shipyards are the only potential customers of steel. Steel producers figure they'll make money if there's a shipyard to buy their steel, but not otherwise. Now we have two possible outcomes ― what economists call "multiple equilibria."There is a "good" outcome, in which both types of investments are made, and both the shipyard and the steelmakers end up profitable and happy. Equilibrium is reached. Then there is a "bad" outcome, in which neither type of investment is made. This second outcome also is an equilibrium because the decisions not to invest reinforce each other.
2163-38
In most organizations, the employee's immediate supervisor evaluates the employee's performance. This is because the supervisor is responsible for the employee's performance, providing supervision, handing out assignments, and developing the employee. A problem, however, is that supervisors often work in locations apart from their employees and therefore are not able to observe their subordinates' performance. Should supervisors rate employees on performance dimensions they cannot observe? To eliminate this dilemma, more and more organizations are implementing assessments referred to as 360-degree evaluations. Employees are rated not only by their supervisors but by coworkers, clients or citizens, professionals in other agencies with whom they work, and subordinates. The reason for this approach is that often coworkers and clients or citizens have a greater opportunity to observe an employee's performance and are in a better position to evaluate many performance dimensions.
2163-39
The role that sleep plays in evolution is still under study. One possibility is that it is an advantageous adaptive state of decreased metabolism for an animal when there are no more pressing activities. This seems true for deeper states of inactivity such as hibernation during the winter when there are few food supplies, and a high metabolic cost to maintaining adequate temperature. It may be true in daily situations as well, for instance for a prey species to avoid predators after dark. On the other hand, the apparent universality of sleep, and the observation that mammals such as cetaceans have developed such highly complex mechanisms to preserve sleep on at least one side of the brain at a time, suggests that sleep additionally provides some vital service(s) for the organism. This is particularly true since one aspect of sleep is decreased responsiveness to the environment. If sleep is universal even when this potential price must be paid, the implication may be that it has important functions that cannot be obtained just by quiet, wakeful resting.
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2163 본문읽기 15
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 13. 20:48
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2163-30
Sport can trigger an emotional response in its consumers of the kind rarely brought forth by other products. Imagine bank customers buying memorabilia to show loyalty to their bank, or consumers identifying so strongly with their car insurance company that they get a tattoo with its logo. We know that some sport followers are so passionate about players, teams and the sport itself that their interest borders on obsession. This addiction provides the emotional glue that binds fans to teams, and maintains loyalty even in the face of on-field failure. While most managers can only dream of having customers that are as passionate about their products as sport fans, the emotion triggered by sport can also have a negative impact. Sport's emotional intensity can mean that organisations have strong attachments to the past through nostalgia and club tradition. As a result, they may ignore efficiency, productivity and the need to respond quickly to changing market conditions. For example, a proposal to change club colours in order to project a more attractive image may be defeated because it breaks a link with tradition.
2163-31
The growth of academic disciplines and sub-disciplines, such as art history or palaeontology, and of particular figures such as the art critic, helped produce principles and practices for selecting and organizing what was worthy of keeping, though it remained a struggle. Moreover, as museums and universities drew further apart toward the end of the nineteenth century, and as the idea of objects as a highly valued route to knowing the world went into decline, collecting began to lose its status as a worthy intellectual pursuit, especially in the sciences. The really interesting and important aspects of science were increasingly those invisible to the naked eye, and the classification of things collected no longer promised to produce cutting-edge knowledge. The term "butterfly collecting" could come to be used with the adjective "mere" to indicate a pursuit of secondary academic status.
2163-32
Some of the most insightful work on information seeking emphasizes "strategic self-ignorance," understood as "the use of ignorance as an excuse to engage excessively in pleasurable activities that may be harmful to one's future self."The idea here is that if people are present-biased, they might avoid information that would make current activities less attractive ― perhaps because it would produce guilt or shame, perhaps because it would suggest an aggregate trade-off that would counsel against engaging in such activities. St. Augustine famously said, "God give me chastity ― tomorrow."Present-biased agents think: "Please let me know the risks ― tomorrow."Whenever people are thinking about engaging in an activity with short-term benefits but long-term costs, they might prefer to delay receipt of important information. The same point might hold about information that could make people sad or mad: "Please tell me what I need to know ― tomorrow."
2163-33
Concepts of nature are always cultural statements. This may not strike Europeans as much of an insight, for Europe's landscape is so much of a blend. But in the new worlds ― 'new' at least to Europeans ― the distinction appeared much clearer not only to European settlers and visitors but also to their descendants. For that reason, they had the fond conceit of primeval nature uncontrolled by human associations which could later find expression in an admiration for wilderness. Ecological relationships certainly have their own logic and in this sense 'nature' can be seen to have a self-regulating but not necessarily stable dynamic independent of human intervention. But the context for ecological interactions has increasingly been set by humanity. We may not determine how or what a lion eats but we certainly can regulate where the lion feeds.
2163-34
Emma Brindley has investigated the responses of European robins to the songs of neighbors and strangers. Despite the large and complex song repertoire of European robins, they were able to discriminate between the songs of neighbors and strangers. When they heard a tape recording of a stranger, they began to sing sooner, sang more songs, and overlapped their songs with the playback more often than they did on hearing a neighbor's song. As Brindley suggests, the overlapping of song may be an aggressive response. However, this difference in responding to neighbor versus stranger occurred only when the neighbor's song was played by a loudspeaker placed at the boundary between that neighbor's territory and the territory of the bird being tested. If the same neighbor's song was played at another boundary, one separating the territory of the test subject from another neighbor, it was treated as the call of a stranger. Not only does this result demonstrate that the robins associate locality with familiar songs, but it also shows that the choice of songs used in playback experiments
Sport can trigger an emotional response in its consumers of the kind rarely brought forth by other products. Imagine bank customers buying memorabilia to show loyalty to their bank, or consumers identifying so strongly with their car insurance company that they get a tattoo with its logo. We know that some sport followers are so passionate about players, teams and the sport itself that their interest borders on obsession. This addiction provides the emotional glue that binds fans to teams, and maintains loyalty even in the face of on-field failure. While most managers can only dream of having customers that are as passionate about their products as sport fans, the emotion triggered by sport can also have a negative impact. Sport's emotional intensity can mean that organisations have strong attachments to the past through nostalgia and club tradition. As a result, they may ignore efficiency, productivity and the need to respond quickly to changing market conditions. For example, a proposal to change club colours in order to project a more attractive image may be defeated because it breaks a link with tradition.
2163-31
The growth of academic disciplines and sub-disciplines, such as art history or palaeontology, and of particular figures such as the art critic, helped produce principles and practices for selecting and organizing what was worthy of keeping, though it remained a struggle. Moreover, as museums and universities drew further apart toward the end of the nineteenth century, and as the idea of objects as a highly valued route to knowing the world went into decline, collecting began to lose its status as a worthy intellectual pursuit, especially in the sciences. The really interesting and important aspects of science were increasingly those invisible to the naked eye, and the classification of things collected no longer promised to produce cutting-edge knowledge. The term "butterfly collecting" could come to be used with the adjective "mere" to indicate a pursuit of secondary academic status.
2163-32
Some of the most insightful work on information seeking emphasizes "strategic self-ignorance," understood as "the use of ignorance as an excuse to engage excessively in pleasurable activities that may be harmful to one's future self."The idea here is that if people are present-biased, they might avoid information that would make current activities less attractive ― perhaps because it would produce guilt or shame, perhaps because it would suggest an aggregate trade-off that would counsel against engaging in such activities. St. Augustine famously said, "God give me chastity ― tomorrow."Present-biased agents think: "Please let me know the risks ― tomorrow."Whenever people are thinking about engaging in an activity with short-term benefits but long-term costs, they might prefer to delay receipt of important information. The same point might hold about information that could make people sad or mad: "Please tell me what I need to know ― tomorrow."
2163-33
Concepts of nature are always cultural statements. This may not strike Europeans as much of an insight, for Europe's landscape is so much of a blend. But in the new worlds ― 'new' at least to Europeans ― the distinction appeared much clearer not only to European settlers and visitors but also to their descendants. For that reason, they had the fond conceit of primeval nature uncontrolled by human associations which could later find expression in an admiration for wilderness. Ecological relationships certainly have their own logic and in this sense 'nature' can be seen to have a self-regulating but not necessarily stable dynamic independent of human intervention. But the context for ecological interactions has increasingly been set by humanity. We may not determine how or what a lion eats but we certainly can regulate where the lion feeds.
2163-34
Emma Brindley has investigated the responses of European robins to the songs of neighbors and strangers. Despite the large and complex song repertoire of European robins, they were able to discriminate between the songs of neighbors and strangers. When they heard a tape recording of a stranger, they began to sing sooner, sang more songs, and overlapped their songs with the playback more often than they did on hearing a neighbor's song. As Brindley suggests, the overlapping of song may be an aggressive response. However, this difference in responding to neighbor versus stranger occurred only when the neighbor's song was played by a loudspeaker placed at the boundary between that neighbor's territory and the territory of the bird being tested. If the same neighbor's song was played at another boundary, one separating the territory of the test subject from another neighbor, it was treated as the call of a stranger. Not only does this result demonstrate that the robins associate locality with familiar songs, but it also shows that the choice of songs used in playback experiments
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2163 본문읽기 10
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 13. 20:47
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2163-23
Children can move effortlessly between play and absorption in a story, as if both are forms of the same activity. The taking of roles in a narratively structured game of pirates is not very different than the taking of roles in identifying with characters as one watches a movie. It might be thought that, as they grow towards adolescence, people give up childhood play, but this is not so. Instead, the bases and interests of this activity change and develop to playing and watching sports, to the fiction of plays, novels, and movies, and nowadays to video games. In fiction, one can enter possible worlds. When we experience emotions in such worlds, this is not a sign that we are being incoherent or regressed. It derives from trying out metaphorical transformations of our selves in new ways, in new worlds, in ways that can be moving and important to us.
2163-24
Although cognitive and neuropsychological approaches emphasize the losses with age that might impair social perception, motivational theories indicate that there may be some gains or qualitative changes. Charles and Carstensen review a considerable body of evidence indicating that, as people get older, they tend to prioritize close social relationships, focus more on achieving emotional well-being, and attend more to positive emotional information while ignoring negative information. These changing motivational goals in old age have implications for attention to and processing of social cues from the environment. Of particular importance in considering emotional changes in old age is the presence of a positivity bias: that is, a tendency to notice, attend to, and remember more positive compared to negative information. The role of life experience in social skills also indicates that older adults might show gains in some aspects of social perception.
2163-25
The above graph, which was based on a survey conducted in 2019, shows the percentages of U.S. adults by age group who said they had read (or listened to) a book in one or more of the formats ― print books, e-books, and audiobooks ― in the previous 12 months. The percentage of people in the 18-29 group who said they had read a print book was 74%, which was the highest among the four groups. The percentage of people who said they had read a print book in the 50-64 group was lower than that in the 65 and up group. While 34% of people in the 18-29 group said they had read an e-book, the percentage of people who said so was below 20% in the 65 and up group. In all age groups, the percentage of people who said they had read an e-book was higher than that of people who said they had listened to an audiobook. Among the four age groups, the 30-49 group had the highest percentage of people who said they had listened to an audiobook.
2163-26
Emil Zátopek, a former Czech athlete, is considered one of the greatest long-distance runners ever. He was also famous for his distinctive running style. While working in a shoe factory, he participated in a 1,500-meter race and won second place. After that event, he took a more serious interest in running and devoted himself to it. At the 1952 Olympic Games in Helsinki, he won three gold medals in the 5,000-meter and 10,000-meter races and in the marathon, breaking Olympic records in each. He was married to Dana Zátopková, who was an Olympic gold medalist, too. Zátopek was also noted for his friendly personality. In 1966, Zátopek invited Ron Clarke, a great Australian runner who had never won an Olympic gold medal, to an athletic meeting in Prague. After the meeting, he gave Clarke one of his gold medals as a gift.
2163-29
Most historians of science point to the need for a reliable calendar to regulate agricultural activity as the motivation for learning about what we now call astronomy, the study of stars and planets. Early astronomy provided information about when to plant crops and gave humans their first formal method of recording the passage of time. Stonehenge, the 4,000-year-old ring of stones in southern Britain, is perhaps the best-known monument to the discovery of regularity and predictability in the world we inhabit. The great markers of Stonehenge point to the spots on the horizon where the sun rises at the solstices and equinoxes ― the dates we still use to mark the beginnings of the seasons. The stones may even have been used to predict eclipses. The existence of Stonehenge, built by people without writing, bears silent testimony both to the regularity of nature and to the ability of the human mind to see behind immediate appearances and discover deeper meanings in events.
Children can move effortlessly between play and absorption in a story, as if both are forms of the same activity. The taking of roles in a narratively structured game of pirates is not very different than the taking of roles in identifying with characters as one watches a movie. It might be thought that, as they grow towards adolescence, people give up childhood play, but this is not so. Instead, the bases and interests of this activity change and develop to playing and watching sports, to the fiction of plays, novels, and movies, and nowadays to video games. In fiction, one can enter possible worlds. When we experience emotions in such worlds, this is not a sign that we are being incoherent or regressed. It derives from trying out metaphorical transformations of our selves in new ways, in new worlds, in ways that can be moving and important to us.
2163-24
Although cognitive and neuropsychological approaches emphasize the losses with age that might impair social perception, motivational theories indicate that there may be some gains or qualitative changes. Charles and Carstensen review a considerable body of evidence indicating that, as people get older, they tend to prioritize close social relationships, focus more on achieving emotional well-being, and attend more to positive emotional information while ignoring negative information. These changing motivational goals in old age have implications for attention to and processing of social cues from the environment. Of particular importance in considering emotional changes in old age is the presence of a positivity bias: that is, a tendency to notice, attend to, and remember more positive compared to negative information. The role of life experience in social skills also indicates that older adults might show gains in some aspects of social perception.
2163-25
The above graph, which was based on a survey conducted in 2019, shows the percentages of U.S. adults by age group who said they had read (or listened to) a book in one or more of the formats ― print books, e-books, and audiobooks ― in the previous 12 months. The percentage of people in the 18-29 group who said they had read a print book was 74%, which was the highest among the four groups. The percentage of people who said they had read a print book in the 50-64 group was lower than that in the 65 and up group. While 34% of people in the 18-29 group said they had read an e-book, the percentage of people who said so was below 20% in the 65 and up group. In all age groups, the percentage of people who said they had read an e-book was higher than that of people who said they had listened to an audiobook. Among the four age groups, the 30-49 group had the highest percentage of people who said they had listened to an audiobook.
2163-26
Emil Zátopek, a former Czech athlete, is considered one of the greatest long-distance runners ever. He was also famous for his distinctive running style. While working in a shoe factory, he participated in a 1,500-meter race and won second place. After that event, he took a more serious interest in running and devoted himself to it. At the 1952 Olympic Games in Helsinki, he won three gold medals in the 5,000-meter and 10,000-meter races and in the marathon, breaking Olympic records in each. He was married to Dana Zátopková, who was an Olympic gold medalist, too. Zátopek was also noted for his friendly personality. In 1966, Zátopek invited Ron Clarke, a great Australian runner who had never won an Olympic gold medal, to an athletic meeting in Prague. After the meeting, he gave Clarke one of his gold medals as a gift.
2163-29
Most historians of science point to the need for a reliable calendar to regulate agricultural activity as the motivation for learning about what we now call astronomy, the study of stars and planets. Early astronomy provided information about when to plant crops and gave humans their first formal method of recording the passage of time. Stonehenge, the 4,000-year-old ring of stones in southern Britain, is perhaps the best-known monument to the discovery of regularity and predictability in the world we inhabit. The great markers of Stonehenge point to the spots on the horizon where the sun rises at the solstices and equinoxes ― the dates we still use to mark the beginnings of the seasons. The stones may even have been used to predict eclipses. The existence of Stonehenge, built by people without writing, bears silent testimony both to the regularity of nature and to the ability of the human mind to see behind immediate appearances and discover deeper meanings in events.
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2163 본문읽기 5
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 13. 20:47
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2163-18
I am writing to you with new information about your current membership. Last year, you signed up for our museum membership that provides special discounts. As stated in the last newsletter, this year we are happy to be celebrating our 50th anniversary. So we would like to offer you further benefits. These include free admission for up to ten people and 20% off museum merchandise on your next visit. You will also be invited to all new exhibition openings this year at discounted prices. We hope you enjoy these offers. For any questions, please feel free to contact us.
2163-19
As Natalie was logging in to her first online counseling session, she wondered, "How can I open my heart to the counselor through a computer screen?"Since the counseling center was a long drive away, she knew that this would save her a lot of time. Natalie just wasn't sure if it would be as helpful as meeting her counselor in person. Once the session began, however, her concerns went away. She actually started thinking that it was much more convenient than expected. She felt as if the counselor were in the room with her. As the session closed, she told him with a smile, "I'll definitely see you online again!"
2163-20
New ideas, such as those inspired by scientific developments, are often aired and critiqued in our popular culture as part of a healthy process of public debate, and scientists sometimes deserve the criticism they get. But the popularization of science would be greatly enhanced by improving the widespread images of the scientist. Part of the problem may be that the majority of the people who are most likely to write novels, plays, and film scripts were educated in the humanities, not in the sciences. Furthermore, the few scientists-turned-writers have used their scientific training as the source material for thrillers that further damage the image of science and scientists. We need more screenplays and novels that present scientists in a positive light. In our contemporary world, television and film are particularly influential media, and it is likely that the introduction of more scientist-heroes would help to make science more attractive.
2163-21
The single most important change you can make in your working habits is to switch to creative work first, reactive work second. This means blocking off a large chunk of time every day for creative work on your own priorities, with the phone and e-mail off. I used to be a frustrated writer. Making this switch turned me into a productive writer. Yet there wasn't a single day when I sat down to write an article, blog post, or book chapter without a string of people waiting for me to get back to them. It wasn't easy, and it still isn't, particularly when I get phone messages beginning "I sent you an e-mail two hours ago!"By definition, this approach goes against the grain of others' expectations and the pressures they put on you. It takes willpower to switch off the world, even for an hour. It feels uncomfortable, and sometimes people get upset. But it's better to disappoint a few people over small things, than to abandon your dreams for an empty inbox. Otherwise, you're sacrificing your potential for the illusion of professionalism.
2163-22
Contractors that will construct a project may place more weight on the planning process. Proper planning forces detailed thinking about the project. It allows the project manager (or team) to "build the project in his or her head."The project manager (or team) can consider different methodologies thereby deciding what works best or what does not work at all. This detailed thinking may be the only way to discover restrictions or risks that were not addressed in the estimating process. It would be far better to discover in the planning phase that a particular technology or material will not work than in the execution process. The goal of the planning process for the contractor is to produce a workable scheme that uses the resources efficiently within the allowable time and given budget. A well-developed plan does not guarantee that the executing process will proceed flawlessly or that the project will even succeed in meeting its objectives. It does, however, greatly improve its chances.
I am writing to you with new information about your current membership. Last year, you signed up for our museum membership that provides special discounts. As stated in the last newsletter, this year we are happy to be celebrating our 50th anniversary. So we would like to offer you further benefits. These include free admission for up to ten people and 20% off museum merchandise on your next visit. You will also be invited to all new exhibition openings this year at discounted prices. We hope you enjoy these offers. For any questions, please feel free to contact us.
2163-19
As Natalie was logging in to her first online counseling session, she wondered, "How can I open my heart to the counselor through a computer screen?"Since the counseling center was a long drive away, she knew that this would save her a lot of time. Natalie just wasn't sure if it would be as helpful as meeting her counselor in person. Once the session began, however, her concerns went away. She actually started thinking that it was much more convenient than expected. She felt as if the counselor were in the room with her. As the session closed, she told him with a smile, "I'll definitely see you online again!"
2163-20
New ideas, such as those inspired by scientific developments, are often aired and critiqued in our popular culture as part of a healthy process of public debate, and scientists sometimes deserve the criticism they get. But the popularization of science would be greatly enhanced by improving the widespread images of the scientist. Part of the problem may be that the majority of the people who are most likely to write novels, plays, and film scripts were educated in the humanities, not in the sciences. Furthermore, the few scientists-turned-writers have used their scientific training as the source material for thrillers that further damage the image of science and scientists. We need more screenplays and novels that present scientists in a positive light. In our contemporary world, television and film are particularly influential media, and it is likely that the introduction of more scientist-heroes would help to make science more attractive.
2163-21
The single most important change you can make in your working habits is to switch to creative work first, reactive work second. This means blocking off a large chunk of time every day for creative work on your own priorities, with the phone and e-mail off. I used to be a frustrated writer. Making this switch turned me into a productive writer. Yet there wasn't a single day when I sat down to write an article, blog post, or book chapter without a string of people waiting for me to get back to them. It wasn't easy, and it still isn't, particularly when I get phone messages beginning "I sent you an e-mail two hours ago!"By definition, this approach goes against the grain of others' expectations and the pressures they put on you. It takes willpower to switch off the world, even for an hour. It feels uncomfortable, and sometimes people get upset. But it's better to disappoint a few people over small things, than to abandon your dreams for an empty inbox. Otherwise, you're sacrificing your potential for the illusion of professionalism.
2163-22
Contractors that will construct a project may place more weight on the planning process. Proper planning forces detailed thinking about the project. It allows the project manager (or team) to "build the project in his or her head."The project manager (or team) can consider different methodologies thereby deciding what works best or what does not work at all. This detailed thinking may be the only way to discover restrictions or risks that were not addressed in the estimating process. It would be far better to discover in the planning phase that a particular technology or material will not work than in the execution process. The goal of the planning process for the contractor is to produce a workable scheme that uses the resources efficiently within the allowable time and given budget. A well-developed plan does not guarantee that the executing process will proceed flawlessly or that the project will even succeed in meeting its objectives. It does, however, greatly improve its chances.
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2263 본문읽기 20
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 13. 20:47
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2263-35
The animal in a conflict between attacking a rival and fleeing may initially not have sufficient information to enable it to make a decision straight away. If the rival is likely to win the fight, then the optimal decision would be to give up immediately and not risk getting injured. But if the rival is weak and easily defeatable, then there could be considerable benefit in going ahead and obtaining the territory, females, food or whatever is at stake. By taking a little extra time to collect information about the opponent, the animal is more likely to reach a decision that maximizes its chances of winning than if it takes a decision without such information. Many signals are now seen as having this information gathering or 'assessment' function, directly contributing to the mechanism of the decision-making process by supplying vital information about the likely outcomes of the various options.
2263-36
The fossil record provides evidence of evolution. The story the fossils tell is one of change. Creatures existed in the past that are no longer with us. Sequential changes are found in many fossils showing the change of certain features over time from a common ancestor, as in the case of the horse. Apart from demonstrating that evolution did occur, the fossil record also provides tests of the predictions made from evolutionary theory. For example, the theory predicts that single-celled organisms evolved before multi-celled organisms. The fossil record supports this prediction ― multi-celled organisms are found in layers of earth millions of years after the first appearance of single-celled organisms. Note that the possibility always remains that the opposite could be found. If multicelled organisms were indeed found to have evolved before single-celled organisms, then the theory of evolution would be rejected. A good scientific theory always allows for the possibility of rejection. The fact that we have not found such a case in countless examinations of the fossil record strengthens the case for evolutionary theory.
2263-37
In economics, there is a principle known as the sunk cost fallacy. The idea is that when you are invested and have ownership in something, you overvalue that thing. This leads people to continue on paths or pursuits that should clearly be abandoned. For example, people often remain in terrible relationships simply because they've invested a great deal of themselves into them. Or someone may continue pouring money into a business that is clearly a bad idea in the market. Sometimes, the smartest thing a person can do is quit. Although this is true, it has also become a tired and played-out argument. Sunk cost doesn't always have to be a bad thing. Actually, you can leverage this human tendency to your benefit. Like someone invests a great deal of money in a personal trainer to ensure they follow through on their commitment, you, too, can invest a great deal up front to ensure you stay on the path you want to be on.
2263-38
Simply maintaining yields at current levels often requires new cultivars and management methods, since pests and diseases continue to evolve, and aspects of the chemical, physical, and social environment can change over several decades. In the 1960s, many people considered pesticides to be mainly beneficial to mankind. Developing new, broadly effective, and persistent pesticides often was considered to be the best way to control pests on crop plants. Since that time, it has become apparent that broadly effective pesticides can have harmful effects on beneficial insects, which can negate their effects in controlling pests, and that persistent pesticides can damage non-target organisms in the ecosystem, such as birds and people. Also, it has become difficult for companies to develop new pesticides, even those that can have major beneficial effects and few negative effects. Very high costs are involved in following all of the procedures needed to gain government approval for new pesticides. Consequently, more consideration is being given to other ways to manage pests, such as incorporating greater resistance to pests into cultivars by breeding and using other biological control methods.
2263-39
The dynamics of collective detection have an interesting feature. Which cue(s) do individuals use as evidence of predator attack? In some cases, when an individual detects a predator, its best response is to seek shelter. Departure from the group may signal danger to nonvigilant animals and cause what appears to be a coordinated flushing of prey from the area. Studies on dark-eyed juncos (a type of bird) support the view that nonvigilant animals attend to departures of individual group mates but that the departure of multiple individuals causes a greater escape response in the nonvigilant individuals. This makes sense from the perspective of information reliability. If one group member departs, it might have done so for a number of reasons that have little to do with predation threat. If nonvigilant animals escaped each time a single member left the group, they would frequently respond when there was no predator (a false alarm). On the other hand, when several individuals depart the group at the same time, a true threat is much more likely to be present.
The animal in a conflict between attacking a rival and fleeing may initially not have sufficient information to enable it to make a decision straight away. If the rival is likely to win the fight, then the optimal decision would be to give up immediately and not risk getting injured. But if the rival is weak and easily defeatable, then there could be considerable benefit in going ahead and obtaining the territory, females, food or whatever is at stake. By taking a little extra time to collect information about the opponent, the animal is more likely to reach a decision that maximizes its chances of winning than if it takes a decision without such information. Many signals are now seen as having this information gathering or 'assessment' function, directly contributing to the mechanism of the decision-making process by supplying vital information about the likely outcomes of the various options.
2263-36
The fossil record provides evidence of evolution. The story the fossils tell is one of change. Creatures existed in the past that are no longer with us. Sequential changes are found in many fossils showing the change of certain features over time from a common ancestor, as in the case of the horse. Apart from demonstrating that evolution did occur, the fossil record also provides tests of the predictions made from evolutionary theory. For example, the theory predicts that single-celled organisms evolved before multi-celled organisms. The fossil record supports this prediction ― multi-celled organisms are found in layers of earth millions of years after the first appearance of single-celled organisms. Note that the possibility always remains that the opposite could be found. If multicelled organisms were indeed found to have evolved before single-celled organisms, then the theory of evolution would be rejected. A good scientific theory always allows for the possibility of rejection. The fact that we have not found such a case in countless examinations of the fossil record strengthens the case for evolutionary theory.
2263-37
In economics, there is a principle known as the sunk cost fallacy. The idea is that when you are invested and have ownership in something, you overvalue that thing. This leads people to continue on paths or pursuits that should clearly be abandoned. For example, people often remain in terrible relationships simply because they've invested a great deal of themselves into them. Or someone may continue pouring money into a business that is clearly a bad idea in the market. Sometimes, the smartest thing a person can do is quit. Although this is true, it has also become a tired and played-out argument. Sunk cost doesn't always have to be a bad thing. Actually, you can leverage this human tendency to your benefit. Like someone invests a great deal of money in a personal trainer to ensure they follow through on their commitment, you, too, can invest a great deal up front to ensure you stay on the path you want to be on.
2263-38
Simply maintaining yields at current levels often requires new cultivars and management methods, since pests and diseases continue to evolve, and aspects of the chemical, physical, and social environment can change over several decades. In the 1960s, many people considered pesticides to be mainly beneficial to mankind. Developing new, broadly effective, and persistent pesticides often was considered to be the best way to control pests on crop plants. Since that time, it has become apparent that broadly effective pesticides can have harmful effects on beneficial insects, which can negate their effects in controlling pests, and that persistent pesticides can damage non-target organisms in the ecosystem, such as birds and people. Also, it has become difficult for companies to develop new pesticides, even those that can have major beneficial effects and few negative effects. Very high costs are involved in following all of the procedures needed to gain government approval for new pesticides. Consequently, more consideration is being given to other ways to manage pests, such as incorporating greater resistance to pests into cultivars by breeding and using other biological control methods.
2263-39
The dynamics of collective detection have an interesting feature. Which cue(s) do individuals use as evidence of predator attack? In some cases, when an individual detects a predator, its best response is to seek shelter. Departure from the group may signal danger to nonvigilant animals and cause what appears to be a coordinated flushing of prey from the area. Studies on dark-eyed juncos (a type of bird) support the view that nonvigilant animals attend to departures of individual group mates but that the departure of multiple individuals causes a greater escape response in the nonvigilant individuals. This makes sense from the perspective of information reliability. If one group member departs, it might have done so for a number of reasons that have little to do with predation threat. If nonvigilant animals escaped each time a single member left the group, they would frequently respond when there was no predator (a false alarm). On the other hand, when several individuals depart the group at the same time, a true threat is much more likely to be present.
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2263 본문읽기 15
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 13. 20:47
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2263-30
In recent years urban transport professionals globally have largely acquiesced to the view that automobile demand in cities needs to be managed rather than accommodated. Rising incomes inevitably lead to increases in motorization. Even without the imperative of climate change, the physical constraints of densely inhabited cities and the corresponding demands of accessibility, mobility, safety, air pollution, and urban livability all limit the option of expanding road networks purely to accommodate this rising demand. As a result, as cities develop and their residents become more prosperous, persuading people to choose not to use cars becomes an increasingly key focus of city managers and planners. Improving the quality of alternative options, such as walking, cycling, and public transport, is a central element of this strategy. However, the most direct approach to managing automobile demand is making motorized travel more expensive or restricting it with administrative rules. The contribution of motorized travel to climate change reinforces this imperative.
2263-31
Young contemporary artists who employ digital technologies in their practice rarely make reference to computers. For example, Wade Guyton, an abstractionist who uses a word processing program and inkjet printers, does not call himself a computer artist. Moreover, some critics, who admire his work, are little concerned about his extensive use of computers in the art-making process. This is a marked contrast from three decades ago when artists who utilized computers were labeled by critics ― often disapprovingly ― as computer artists. For the present generation of artists, the computer, or more appropriately, the laptop, is one in a collection of integrated, portable digital technologies that link their social and working life. With tablets and cell phones surpassing personal computers in Internet usage, and as slim digital devices resemble nothing like the room-sized mainframes and bulky desktop computers of previous decades, it now appears that the computer artist is finally extinct.
2263-32
The critic who wants to write about literature from a formalist perspective must first be a close and careful reader who examines all the elements of a text individually and questions how they come together to create a work of art. Such a reader, who respects the autonomy of a work, achieves an understanding of it by looking inside it, not outside it or beyond it. Instead of examining historical periods, author biographies, or literary styles, for example, he or she will approach a text with the assumption that it is a self-contained entity and that he or she is looking for the governing principles that allow the text to reveal itself. For example, the correspondences between the characters in James Joyce's short story "Araby" and the people he knew personally may be interesting, but for the formalist they are less relevant to understanding how the story creates meaning than are other kinds of information that the story contains within itself.
2263-33
Manufacturers design their innovation processes around the way they think the process works. The vast majority of manufacturers still think that product development and service development are always done by manufacturers, and that their job is always to find a need and fill it rather than to sometimes find and commercialize an innovation that lead users have already developed. Accordingly, manufacturers have set up market-research departments to explore the needs of users in the target market, product-development groups to think up suitable products to address those needs, and so forth. The needs and prototype solutions of lead users ― if encountered at all ― are typically rejected as outliers of no interest. Indeed, when lead users' innovations do enter a firm's product line ― and they have been shown to be the actual source of many major innovations for many firms ― they typically arrive with a lag and by an unusual and unsystematic route.
2263-34
Development can get very complicated and fanciful. A fugue by Johann Sebastian Bach illustrates how far this process could go, when a single melodic line, sometimes just a handful of notes, was all that the composer needed to create a brilliant work containing lots of intricate development within a coherent structure. Ludwig van Beethoven's famous Fifth Symphony provides an exceptional example of how much mileage a classical composer can get out of a few notes and a simple rhythmic tapping. The opening da-da-da-DUM that everyone has heard somewhere or another appears in an incredible variety of ways throughout not only the opening movement, but the remaining three movements, like a kind of motto or a connective thread. Just as we don't always see the intricate brushwork that goes into the creation of a painting, we may not always notice how Beethoven keeps finding fresh uses for his motto or how he develops his material into a large, cohesive statement. But a lot of the enjoyment we get from that mighty symphony stems from the inventiveness behind it, the impressive development of musical ideas.
In recent years urban transport professionals globally have largely acquiesced to the view that automobile demand in cities needs to be managed rather than accommodated. Rising incomes inevitably lead to increases in motorization. Even without the imperative of climate change, the physical constraints of densely inhabited cities and the corresponding demands of accessibility, mobility, safety, air pollution, and urban livability all limit the option of expanding road networks purely to accommodate this rising demand. As a result, as cities develop and their residents become more prosperous, persuading people to choose not to use cars becomes an increasingly key focus of city managers and planners. Improving the quality of alternative options, such as walking, cycling, and public transport, is a central element of this strategy. However, the most direct approach to managing automobile demand is making motorized travel more expensive or restricting it with administrative rules. The contribution of motorized travel to climate change reinforces this imperative.
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Young contemporary artists who employ digital technologies in their practice rarely make reference to computers. For example, Wade Guyton, an abstractionist who uses a word processing program and inkjet printers, does not call himself a computer artist. Moreover, some critics, who admire his work, are little concerned about his extensive use of computers in the art-making process. This is a marked contrast from three decades ago when artists who utilized computers were labeled by critics ― often disapprovingly ― as computer artists. For the present generation of artists, the computer, or more appropriately, the laptop, is one in a collection of integrated, portable digital technologies that link their social and working life. With tablets and cell phones surpassing personal computers in Internet usage, and as slim digital devices resemble nothing like the room-sized mainframes and bulky desktop computers of previous decades, it now appears that the computer artist is finally extinct.
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The critic who wants to write about literature from a formalist perspective must first be a close and careful reader who examines all the elements of a text individually and questions how they come together to create a work of art. Such a reader, who respects the autonomy of a work, achieves an understanding of it by looking inside it, not outside it or beyond it. Instead of examining historical periods, author biographies, or literary styles, for example, he or she will approach a text with the assumption that it is a self-contained entity and that he or she is looking for the governing principles that allow the text to reveal itself. For example, the correspondences between the characters in James Joyce's short story "Araby" and the people he knew personally may be interesting, but for the formalist they are less relevant to understanding how the story creates meaning than are other kinds of information that the story contains within itself.
2263-33
Manufacturers design their innovation processes around the way they think the process works. The vast majority of manufacturers still think that product development and service development are always done by manufacturers, and that their job is always to find a need and fill it rather than to sometimes find and commercialize an innovation that lead users have already developed. Accordingly, manufacturers have set up market-research departments to explore the needs of users in the target market, product-development groups to think up suitable products to address those needs, and so forth. The needs and prototype solutions of lead users ― if encountered at all ― are typically rejected as outliers of no interest. Indeed, when lead users' innovations do enter a firm's product line ― and they have been shown to be the actual source of many major innovations for many firms ― they typically arrive with a lag and by an unusual and unsystematic route.
2263-34
Development can get very complicated and fanciful. A fugue by Johann Sebastian Bach illustrates how far this process could go, when a single melodic line, sometimes just a handful of notes, was all that the composer needed to create a brilliant work containing lots of intricate development within a coherent structure. Ludwig van Beethoven's famous Fifth Symphony provides an exceptional example of how much mileage a classical composer can get out of a few notes and a simple rhythmic tapping. The opening da-da-da-DUM that everyone has heard somewhere or another appears in an incredible variety of ways throughout not only the opening movement, but the remaining three movements, like a kind of motto or a connective thread. Just as we don't always see the intricate brushwork that goes into the creation of a painting, we may not always notice how Beethoven keeps finding fresh uses for his motto or how he develops his material into a large, cohesive statement. But a lot of the enjoyment we get from that mighty symphony stems from the inventiveness behind it, the impressive development of musical ideas.
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2263 본문읽기 10
카테고리 없음2023. 5. 13. 20:47
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2263-23
Considerable work by cultural psychologists and anthropologists has shown that there are indeed large and sometimes surprising differences in the words and concepts that different cultures have for describing emotions, as well as in the social circumstances that draw out the expression of particular emotions. However, those data do not actually show that different cultures have different emotions, if we think of emotions as central, neutrally implemented states. As for, say, color vision, they just say that, despite the same internal processing architecture, how we interpret, categorize, and name emotions varies according to culture and that we learn in a particular culture the social context in which it is appropriate to express emotions. However, the emotional states themselves are likely to be quite invariant across cultures. In a sense, we can think of a basic, culturally universal emotion set that is shaped by evolution and implemented in the brain, but the links between such emotional states and stimuli, behavior, and other cognitive states are plastic and can be modified by learning in a specific cultural context.
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The approach, joint cognitive systems, treats a robot as part of a human-machine team where the intelligence is synergistic, arising from the contributions of each agent. The team consists of at least one robot and one human and is often called a mixed team because it is a mixture of human and robot agents. Self-driving cars, where a person turns on and off the driving, is an example of a joint cognitive system. Entertainment robots are examples of mixed teams as are robots for telecommuting. The design process concentrates on how the agents will cooperate and coordinate with each other to accomplish the team goals. Rather than treating robots as peer agents with their own completely independent agenda, joint cognitive systems approaches treat robots as helpers such as service animals or sheep dogs. In joint cognitive system designs, artificial intelligence is used along with human-robot interaction principles to create robots that can be intelligent enough to be good team members.
2263-25
The above tables show the resident patent applications per million population for the top 6 origins in 2009 and in 2019. The Republic of Korea, Japan, and Switzerland, the top three origins in 2009, maintained their rankings in 2019. Germany, which sat fourth on the 2009 list with 891 resident patent applications per million population, fell to fifth place on the 2019 list with 884 resident patent applications per million population. The U.S. fell from fifth place on the 2009 list to sixth place on the 2019 list, showing an increase in the number of resident patent applications per million population. Among the top 6 origins which made the list in 2009, Finland was the only origin which did not make it again in 2019. On the other hand, China, which did not make the list of the top 6 origins in 2009, sat fourth on the 2019 list with 890 resident patent applications per million population.
2263-26
William Buckland (1784-1856) was well known as one of the greatest geologists in his time. His birthplace, Axminster in Britain, was rich with fossils, and as a child, he naturally became interested in fossils while collecting them. In 1801, Buckland won a scholarship and was admitted to Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He developed his scientific knowledge there while attending John Kidd's lectures on mineralogy and chemistry. After Kidd resigned his position, Buckland was appointed his successor at the college. Buckland used representative samples and large-scale geological maps in his lectures, which made his lectures more lively. In 1824, he announced the discovery of the bones of a giant creature, and he named it Megalosaurus, or 'great lizard'. He won the prize from the Geological Society due to his achievements in geology.
2263-29
Ecosystems differ in composition and extent. They can be defined as ranging from the communities and interactions of organisms in your mouth or those in the canopy of a rain forest to all those in Earth's oceans. The processes governing them differ in complexity and speed. There are systems that turn over in minutes, and there are others whose rhythmic time extends to hundreds of years. Some ecosystems are extensive ('biomes', such as the African savanna); some cover regions (river basins); many involve clusters of villages (micro-watersheds); others are confined to the level of a single village (the village pond). In each example there is an element of indivisibility. Divide an ecosystem into parts by creating barriers, and the sum of the productivity of the parts will typically be found to be lower than the productivity of the whole, other things being equal. The mobility of biological populations is a reason. Safe passages, for example, enable migratory species to survive.
Considerable work by cultural psychologists and anthropologists has shown that there are indeed large and sometimes surprising differences in the words and concepts that different cultures have for describing emotions, as well as in the social circumstances that draw out the expression of particular emotions. However, those data do not actually show that different cultures have different emotions, if we think of emotions as central, neutrally implemented states. As for, say, color vision, they just say that, despite the same internal processing architecture, how we interpret, categorize, and name emotions varies according to culture and that we learn in a particular culture the social context in which it is appropriate to express emotions. However, the emotional states themselves are likely to be quite invariant across cultures. In a sense, we can think of a basic, culturally universal emotion set that is shaped by evolution and implemented in the brain, but the links between such emotional states and stimuli, behavior, and other cognitive states are plastic and can be modified by learning in a specific cultural context.
2263-24
The approach, joint cognitive systems, treats a robot as part of a human-machine team where the intelligence is synergistic, arising from the contributions of each agent. The team consists of at least one robot and one human and is often called a mixed team because it is a mixture of human and robot agents. Self-driving cars, where a person turns on and off the driving, is an example of a joint cognitive system. Entertainment robots are examples of mixed teams as are robots for telecommuting. The design process concentrates on how the agents will cooperate and coordinate with each other to accomplish the team goals. Rather than treating robots as peer agents with their own completely independent agenda, joint cognitive systems approaches treat robots as helpers such as service animals or sheep dogs. In joint cognitive system designs, artificial intelligence is used along with human-robot interaction principles to create robots that can be intelligent enough to be good team members.
2263-25
The above tables show the resident patent applications per million population for the top 6 origins in 2009 and in 2019. The Republic of Korea, Japan, and Switzerland, the top three origins in 2009, maintained their rankings in 2019. Germany, which sat fourth on the 2009 list with 891 resident patent applications per million population, fell to fifth place on the 2019 list with 884 resident patent applications per million population. The U.S. fell from fifth place on the 2009 list to sixth place on the 2019 list, showing an increase in the number of resident patent applications per million population. Among the top 6 origins which made the list in 2009, Finland was the only origin which did not make it again in 2019. On the other hand, China, which did not make the list of the top 6 origins in 2009, sat fourth on the 2019 list with 890 resident patent applications per million population.
2263-26
William Buckland (1784-1856) was well known as one of the greatest geologists in his time. His birthplace, Axminster in Britain, was rich with fossils, and as a child, he naturally became interested in fossils while collecting them. In 1801, Buckland won a scholarship and was admitted to Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He developed his scientific knowledge there while attending John Kidd's lectures on mineralogy and chemistry. After Kidd resigned his position, Buckland was appointed his successor at the college. Buckland used representative samples and large-scale geological maps in his lectures, which made his lectures more lively. In 1824, he announced the discovery of the bones of a giant creature, and he named it Megalosaurus, or 'great lizard'. He won the prize from the Geological Society due to his achievements in geology.
2263-29
Ecosystems differ in composition and extent. They can be defined as ranging from the communities and interactions of organisms in your mouth or those in the canopy of a rain forest to all those in Earth's oceans. The processes governing them differ in complexity and speed. There are systems that turn over in minutes, and there are others whose rhythmic time extends to hundreds of years. Some ecosystems are extensive ('biomes', such as the African savanna); some cover regions (river basins); many involve clusters of villages (micro-watersheds); others are confined to the level of a single village (the village pond). In each example there is an element of indivisibility. Divide an ecosystem into parts by creating barriers, and the sum of the productivity of the parts will typically be found to be lower than the productivity of the whole, other things being equal. The mobility of biological populations is a reason. Safe passages, for example, enable migratory species to survive.
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