232_s3 본문읽기 10
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 7. 14:26
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23수특-1402
Spatial position can be indicative of social status. Historical analyses of hundreds of paintings indicate that when two people appear in the same picture the more dominant, powerful person is usually facing to the right. For example, relative to men, women are more often displayed showing the left cheek, consistent with gender roles that consider them as less agentic. In other words, traditionally weak and submissive characters have been assigned to their respective place by where they are situated in space. From the 15th century to the 20th century, however, this gender bias in paintings has become less pronounced, therefore paralleling increasingly modern views of women's role in society.
23수특-1403
Within travel destinations, it is not uncommon to see higher sticker prices in areas most frequented by tourists; prices are much lower elsewhere where locals shop. A few smart tourists soon learn to get away from these "tourist traps" to find better deals where there are not as many tourists. Most tourists will not, because it doesn't pay to spend their scarce vacation time attempting to find cheaper restaurants, souvenirs, and so on outside the tourist areas. If the time spent in searching and shopping for the best deals is included as part of the prices of the purchases, "prices" are actually lower in the tourist areas for most tourists. In sum, locational price differences are generally not considered price discrimination.
23수특-1404
The desire for esteem can be used effectively by society to influence how people act. Systems of prestige are found in all cultures, and in general prestige is used to recognize and reward people who do what is most useful to the culture. People will labor for years, even decades, in the hope of securing the esteem of their fellows and the accompanying right to think well of themselves. By linking prestige and esteem to particular activities or accomplishments, a culture can direct many people to devote their energies in those directions. It is no accident that in small societies struggling for survival, prestige comes with bringing in large amounts of protein (hunting) or defeating the most dangerous enemies (fighting). By the same token, the prestige of motherhood probably rises and falls with the society's need to increase population, and the prestige of entertainers rises and falls with how much time and money the population can devote to leisure activities.
23수특-1501
What do we want to hear when asking the question why John slammed the door? Probably not that John put more than average energy into his act, giving the door more speed (which resulted in a heavy collision of the door with the doorpost, a loud noise and the lamp rocking back and forth). We normally are not interested in a report of the chain of causes and effects leading up to the slamming. Neither do we expect to hear a report about micro-processes in John's body causing his movements. The why-question asks for reasons ― 'He felt offended', for instance. Even when we think in a materialistic frame of mind that the state of being offended can be traced in John's brain, we usually will not be interested in an answer in neurological terms. So, normally, in our day-to-day why-questions about people's actions we expect to hear about their reasons.
23수특-1502
We can presume that the components of love proposed by Sternberg can be found in all cultures. Intimacy, passion, and commitment are most likely cultural universals. Evidence of this comes from many sources, including cultural anthropology, psychological research, and love poetry from across the world. What does appear to vary across cultures, however, is the emphasis placed on the different components of love and on different types of relationships. In collectivist cultures like those found in Asia and Africa, relationships with family may take priority over relationships with lovers and friends. In individualistic cultures, like those of Northern Europe and North America, friendships and romantic relationships compete with family for priority (and often win). Likewise, the concept of duty (similar to Sternberg's concept of commitment) is absolutely central to Chinese Confucianism. In contrast, judging by the mountains of romance novels, love songs, and beauty products found in North America, it is the passionate side of love that is prized in this culture.
Spatial position can be indicative of social status. Historical analyses of hundreds of paintings indicate that when two people appear in the same picture the more dominant, powerful person is usually facing to the right. For example, relative to men, women are more often displayed showing the left cheek, consistent with gender roles that consider them as less agentic. In other words, traditionally weak and submissive characters have been assigned to their respective place by where they are situated in space. From the 15th century to the 20th century, however, this gender bias in paintings has become less pronounced, therefore paralleling increasingly modern views of women's role in society.
23수특-1403
Within travel destinations, it is not uncommon to see higher sticker prices in areas most frequented by tourists; prices are much lower elsewhere where locals shop. A few smart tourists soon learn to get away from these "tourist traps" to find better deals where there are not as many tourists. Most tourists will not, because it doesn't pay to spend their scarce vacation time attempting to find cheaper restaurants, souvenirs, and so on outside the tourist areas. If the time spent in searching and shopping for the best deals is included as part of the prices of the purchases, "prices" are actually lower in the tourist areas for most tourists. In sum, locational price differences are generally not considered price discrimination.
23수특-1404
The desire for esteem can be used effectively by society to influence how people act. Systems of prestige are found in all cultures, and in general prestige is used to recognize and reward people who do what is most useful to the culture. People will labor for years, even decades, in the hope of securing the esteem of their fellows and the accompanying right to think well of themselves. By linking prestige and esteem to particular activities or accomplishments, a culture can direct many people to devote their energies in those directions. It is no accident that in small societies struggling for survival, prestige comes with bringing in large amounts of protein (hunting) or defeating the most dangerous enemies (fighting). By the same token, the prestige of motherhood probably rises and falls with the society's need to increase population, and the prestige of entertainers rises and falls with how much time and money the population can devote to leisure activities.
23수특-1501
What do we want to hear when asking the question why John slammed the door? Probably not that John put more than average energy into his act, giving the door more speed (which resulted in a heavy collision of the door with the doorpost, a loud noise and the lamp rocking back and forth). We normally are not interested in a report of the chain of causes and effects leading up to the slamming. Neither do we expect to hear a report about micro-processes in John's body causing his movements. The why-question asks for reasons ― 'He felt offended', for instance. Even when we think in a materialistic frame of mind that the state of being offended can be traced in John's brain, we usually will not be interested in an answer in neurological terms. So, normally, in our day-to-day why-questions about people's actions we expect to hear about their reasons.
23수특-1502
We can presume that the components of love proposed by Sternberg can be found in all cultures. Intimacy, passion, and commitment are most likely cultural universals. Evidence of this comes from many sources, including cultural anthropology, psychological research, and love poetry from across the world. What does appear to vary across cultures, however, is the emphasis placed on the different components of love and on different types of relationships. In collectivist cultures like those found in Asia and Africa, relationships with family may take priority over relationships with lovers and friends. In individualistic cultures, like those of Northern Europe and North America, friendships and romantic relationships compete with family for priority (and often win). Likewise, the concept of duty (similar to Sternberg's concept of commitment) is absolutely central to Chinese Confucianism. In contrast, judging by the mountains of romance novels, love songs, and beauty products found in North America, it is the passionate side of love that is prized in this culture.
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232_s3 본문읽기 5
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 7. 14:26
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23수특-901
Southern sea lions are seals with small, clearly visible external ears. They are much more mobile on land than true seals, being able to rotate their rear flippers sideways to propel their bodies forward. Sea lions can move quite fast in this manner. A fully grown southern sea lion bull is much larger and more impressive than his northern cousin, the California sea lion. This massive animal measures well over 2 m long and weighs up to half a tonne. His enormous neck is decorated with a shaggy mane; hence the name 'sea lion', which also refers to his roar. The elegant, nearly yellowish females that make up his harem weigh roughly half the average weight of an adult male, but then they expend less energy. From the time he comes ashore in December to when he leaves in March, the bull sea lion neither eats nor sleeps for more than a few minutes at a time: guarding his harem is a full-time job.
23수특-902
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet was born in Philadelphia on December 10, 1787. His family moved to Hartford, Connecticut, where he attended the Hartford Grammar School. He entered Yale College in 1802 and graduated the youngest in his class. Gallaudet became interested in the education of deaf people after meeting Alice Cogswell, the deaf daughter of a neighbor. With funding from Cogswell's father and others, Gallaudet went to Europe in 1815 to learn how to teach deaf children. Dissatisfied by what he saw in British schools for deaf people, Gallaudet visited a school in Paris. There, he received training from deaf teachers Jean Massieu and Laurent Clerc. Gallaudet accompanied Laurent Clerc back to Hartford in 1816 and established the first school for the deaf in the United States in 1817, now known as the American School for the Deaf. Gallaudet served as the institution's principal until 1830. He married one of his former students, Sofia Fowler, and had eight children.
23수특-903
William Black was born in Glasgow, Scotland. His father, a successful merchant, sent him to the School of Art at Glasgow, but Black pursued journalism instead of painting. As a teenager he began writing essays for the local Glasgow newspapers. Some of Black's early articles were on well-known 19th-century English writers and thinkers such as Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin. His early novel James Merle (1864) made little impression. Black eventually left Glasgow for London, where he began to write for another paper, the Morning Star. In 1865, he married Augusta Wenzel, who died in childbirth the following year. Black then went to Europe as a foreign correspondent to cover the so-called Seven Weeks' War, a conflict between Austria and Prussia. After returning to London, he continued to work as a journalist but also began to have success as a novelist. Black set his novels in the Scottish countryside and used a great deal of local color, traditions, and dialect, often setting up a dramatic tension between his rural and his city-bred characters.
23수특-904
Pi Day has been celebrated annually on 14 March since 1988. The brainchild of Larry Shaw, a physicist at the San Francisco Exploratorium, the date 14 March was chosen because the American pattern of writing dates is to put the month before the day, so that 14 March is written as 3/14, corresponding to the pattern of the first three digits of π, 3.14 (three point one four). In 2009, the US House of Representatives passed a resolution recognising 14 March as National Pi Day. The date has attracted increasing worldwide publicity and is celebrated in a vast variety of ways, particularly in schools and colleges, and involves the inevitable consumption of all kinds of pies as well as competitions to memorise and recite as many of the digits of π as possible. Pi Day in 2015 was particularly significant because the date corresponded to the first five digits of π, 3.1415.
23수특-1401
Random sampling doesn't mean just choosing the people to participate in the study haphazardly - there's a difference between the meaning of the word 'random' in everyday use and its meaning in statistics and research methods. A random sample is a sample in which every member of the population has an equally likely chance of being selected for the study ─ and that isn't as easy as it sounds. Most sampling methods will unconsciously favour some people, and not others. Picking names at random out of a telephone directory means that people who are ex-directory or who don't use landlines are not going to be included. In a psychological study, that could introduce a bias, because those people may be different from others in some important way ─ for example, by being younger, or more suspicious of strangers.
Southern sea lions are seals with small, clearly visible external ears. They are much more mobile on land than true seals, being able to rotate their rear flippers sideways to propel their bodies forward. Sea lions can move quite fast in this manner. A fully grown southern sea lion bull is much larger and more impressive than his northern cousin, the California sea lion. This massive animal measures well over 2 m long and weighs up to half a tonne. His enormous neck is decorated with a shaggy mane; hence the name 'sea lion', which also refers to his roar. The elegant, nearly yellowish females that make up his harem weigh roughly half the average weight of an adult male, but then they expend less energy. From the time he comes ashore in December to when he leaves in March, the bull sea lion neither eats nor sleeps for more than a few minutes at a time: guarding his harem is a full-time job.
23수특-902
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet was born in Philadelphia on December 10, 1787. His family moved to Hartford, Connecticut, where he attended the Hartford Grammar School. He entered Yale College in 1802 and graduated the youngest in his class. Gallaudet became interested in the education of deaf people after meeting Alice Cogswell, the deaf daughter of a neighbor. With funding from Cogswell's father and others, Gallaudet went to Europe in 1815 to learn how to teach deaf children. Dissatisfied by what he saw in British schools for deaf people, Gallaudet visited a school in Paris. There, he received training from deaf teachers Jean Massieu and Laurent Clerc. Gallaudet accompanied Laurent Clerc back to Hartford in 1816 and established the first school for the deaf in the United States in 1817, now known as the American School for the Deaf. Gallaudet served as the institution's principal until 1830. He married one of his former students, Sofia Fowler, and had eight children.
23수특-903
William Black was born in Glasgow, Scotland. His father, a successful merchant, sent him to the School of Art at Glasgow, but Black pursued journalism instead of painting. As a teenager he began writing essays for the local Glasgow newspapers. Some of Black's early articles were on well-known 19th-century English writers and thinkers such as Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin. His early novel James Merle (1864) made little impression. Black eventually left Glasgow for London, where he began to write for another paper, the Morning Star. In 1865, he married Augusta Wenzel, who died in childbirth the following year. Black then went to Europe as a foreign correspondent to cover the so-called Seven Weeks' War, a conflict between Austria and Prussia. After returning to London, he continued to work as a journalist but also began to have success as a novelist. Black set his novels in the Scottish countryside and used a great deal of local color, traditions, and dialect, often setting up a dramatic tension between his rural and his city-bred characters.
23수특-904
Pi Day has been celebrated annually on 14 March since 1988. The brainchild of Larry Shaw, a physicist at the San Francisco Exploratorium, the date 14 March was chosen because the American pattern of writing dates is to put the month before the day, so that 14 March is written as 3/14, corresponding to the pattern of the first three digits of π, 3.14 (three point one four). In 2009, the US House of Representatives passed a resolution recognising 14 March as National Pi Day. The date has attracted increasing worldwide publicity and is celebrated in a vast variety of ways, particularly in schools and colleges, and involves the inevitable consumption of all kinds of pies as well as competitions to memorise and recite as many of the digits of π as possible. Pi Day in 2015 was particularly significant because the date corresponded to the first five digits of π, 3.1415.
23수특-1401
Random sampling doesn't mean just choosing the people to participate in the study haphazardly - there's a difference between the meaning of the word 'random' in everyday use and its meaning in statistics and research methods. A random sample is a sample in which every member of the population has an equally likely chance of being selected for the study ─ and that isn't as easy as it sounds. Most sampling methods will unconsciously favour some people, and not others. Picking names at random out of a telephone directory means that people who are ex-directory or who don't use landlines are not going to be included. In a psychological study, that could introduce a bias, because those people may be different from others in some important way ─ for example, by being younger, or more suspicious of strangers.
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0605-131158-232_dg2-wordj-16:20
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 5. 13:11
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{ WORD }
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2363 본문읽기 20
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 4. 12:01
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2363-35
Interestingly, experts do not suffer as much as beginners when performing complex tasks or combining multiple tasks. Because experts have extensive practice within a limited domain, the key component skills in their domain tend to be highly practiced and more automated. Each of these highly practiced skills then demands relatively few cognitive resources, effectively lowering the total cognitive load that experts experience. Thus, experts can perform complex tasks and combine multiple tasks relatively easily. This is not because they necessarily have more cognitive resources than beginners; rather, because of the high level of fluency they have achieved in performing key skills, they can do more with what they have. Beginners, on the other hand, have not achieved the same degree of fluency and automaticity in each of the component skills, and thus they struggle to combine skills that experts combine with relative ease and efficiency.
2363-36
The growing complexity of computer software has direct implications for our global safety and security, particularly as the physical objects upon which we depend ― things like cars, airplanes, bridges, tunnels, and implantable medical devices ― transform themselves into computer code. Physical things are increasingly becoming information technologies. Cars are "computers we ride in," and airplanes are nothing more than "flying Solaris boxes attached to bucketfuls of industrial control systems." As all this code grows in size and complexity, so too do the number of errors and software bugs. According to a study by Carnegie Mellon University, commercial software typically has twenty to thirty bugs for every thousand lines of code ― 50 million lines of code means 1 million to 1.5 million potential errors to be exploited. This is the basis for all malware attacks that take advantage of these computer bugs to get the code to do something it was not originally intended to do. As computer code grows more elaborate, software bugs flourish and security suffers, with increasing consequences for society at large.
2363-37
Darwin saw blushing as uniquely human, representing an involuntary physical reaction caused by embarrassment and self-consciousness in a social environment. If we feel awkward, embarrassed or ashamed when we are alone, we don't blush; it seems to be caused by our concern about what others are thinking of us. Studies have confirmed that simply being told you are blushing brings it on. We feel as though others can see through our skin and into our mind. However, while we sometimes want to disappear when we involuntarily go bright red, psychologists argue that blushing actually serves a positive social purpose. When we blush, it's a signal to others that we recognize that a social norm has been broken; it is an apology for a faux pas. Maybe our brief loss of face benefits the long-term cohesion of the group. Interestingly, if someone blushes after making a social mistake, they are viewed in a more favourable light than those who don't blush.
2363-38
As particular practices are repeated over time and become more widely shared, the values that they embody are reinforced and reproduced and we speak of them as becoming 'institutionalized'. In some cases, this institutionalization has a formal face to it, with rules and protocols written down, and specialized roles created to ensure that procedures are followed correctly. The main institutions of state ― parliament, courts, police and so on ― along with certain of the professions, exhibit this formal character. Other social institutions, perhaps the majority, are not like this; science is an example. Although scientists are trained in the substantive content of their discipline, they are not formally instructed in 'how to be a good scientist'. Instead, much like the young child learning how to play 'nicely', the apprentice scientist gains his or her understanding of the moral values inherent in the role by absorption from their colleagues ― socialization. We think that these values, along with the values that inform many of the professions, are under threat, just as the value of the professions themselves is under threat.
2363-39
When trees grow together, nutrients and water can be optimally divided among them all so that each tree can grow into the best tree it can be. If you "help" individual trees by getting rid of their supposed competition, the remaining trees are bereft. They send messages out to their neighbors unsuccessfully, because nothing remains but stumps. Every tree now grows on its own, giving rise to great differences in productivity. Some individuals photosynthesize like mad until sugar positively bubbles along their trunk. As a result, they are fit and grow better, but they aren't particularly long-lived. This is because a tree can be only as strong as the forest that surrounds it. And there are now a lot of losers in the forest. Weaker members, who would once have been supported by the stronger ones, suddenly fall behind. Whether the reason for their decline is their location and lack of nutrients, a passing sickness, or genetic makeup, they now fall prey to insects and fungi.
Interestingly, experts do not suffer as much as beginners when performing complex tasks or combining multiple tasks. Because experts have extensive practice within a limited domain, the key component skills in their domain tend to be highly practiced and more automated. Each of these highly practiced skills then demands relatively few cognitive resources, effectively lowering the total cognitive load that experts experience. Thus, experts can perform complex tasks and combine multiple tasks relatively easily. This is not because they necessarily have more cognitive resources than beginners; rather, because of the high level of fluency they have achieved in performing key skills, they can do more with what they have. Beginners, on the other hand, have not achieved the same degree of fluency and automaticity in each of the component skills, and thus they struggle to combine skills that experts combine with relative ease and efficiency.
2363-36
The growing complexity of computer software has direct implications for our global safety and security, particularly as the physical objects upon which we depend ― things like cars, airplanes, bridges, tunnels, and implantable medical devices ― transform themselves into computer code. Physical things are increasingly becoming information technologies. Cars are "computers we ride in," and airplanes are nothing more than "flying Solaris boxes attached to bucketfuls of industrial control systems." As all this code grows in size and complexity, so too do the number of errors and software bugs. According to a study by Carnegie Mellon University, commercial software typically has twenty to thirty bugs for every thousand lines of code ― 50 million lines of code means 1 million to 1.5 million potential errors to be exploited. This is the basis for all malware attacks that take advantage of these computer bugs to get the code to do something it was not originally intended to do. As computer code grows more elaborate, software bugs flourish and security suffers, with increasing consequences for society at large.
2363-37
Darwin saw blushing as uniquely human, representing an involuntary physical reaction caused by embarrassment and self-consciousness in a social environment. If we feel awkward, embarrassed or ashamed when we are alone, we don't blush; it seems to be caused by our concern about what others are thinking of us. Studies have confirmed that simply being told you are blushing brings it on. We feel as though others can see through our skin and into our mind. However, while we sometimes want to disappear when we involuntarily go bright red, psychologists argue that blushing actually serves a positive social purpose. When we blush, it's a signal to others that we recognize that a social norm has been broken; it is an apology for a faux pas. Maybe our brief loss of face benefits the long-term cohesion of the group. Interestingly, if someone blushes after making a social mistake, they are viewed in a more favourable light than those who don't blush.
2363-38
As particular practices are repeated over time and become more widely shared, the values that they embody are reinforced and reproduced and we speak of them as becoming 'institutionalized'. In some cases, this institutionalization has a formal face to it, with rules and protocols written down, and specialized roles created to ensure that procedures are followed correctly. The main institutions of state ― parliament, courts, police and so on ― along with certain of the professions, exhibit this formal character. Other social institutions, perhaps the majority, are not like this; science is an example. Although scientists are trained in the substantive content of their discipline, they are not formally instructed in 'how to be a good scientist'. Instead, much like the young child learning how to play 'nicely', the apprentice scientist gains his or her understanding of the moral values inherent in the role by absorption from their colleagues ― socialization. We think that these values, along with the values that inform many of the professions, are under threat, just as the value of the professions themselves is under threat.
2363-39
When trees grow together, nutrients and water can be optimally divided among them all so that each tree can grow into the best tree it can be. If you "help" individual trees by getting rid of their supposed competition, the remaining trees are bereft. They send messages out to their neighbors unsuccessfully, because nothing remains but stumps. Every tree now grows on its own, giving rise to great differences in productivity. Some individuals photosynthesize like mad until sugar positively bubbles along their trunk. As a result, they are fit and grow better, but they aren't particularly long-lived. This is because a tree can be only as strong as the forest that surrounds it. And there are now a lot of losers in the forest. Weaker members, who would once have been supported by the stronger ones, suddenly fall behind. Whether the reason for their decline is their location and lack of nutrients, a passing sickness, or genetic makeup, they now fall prey to insects and fungi.
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2363 본문읽기 15
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 4. 12:01
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2363-30
To the extent that an agent relies on the prior knowledge of its designer rather than on its own percepts, we say that the agent lacks autonomy. A rational agent should be autonomous ― it should learn what it can to compensate for partial or incorrect prior knowledge. For example, a vacuum-cleaning agent that learns to foresee where and when additional dirt will appear will do better than one that does not. As a practical matter, one seldom requires complete autonomy from the start: when the agent has had little or no experience, it would have to act randomly unless the designer gave some assistance. So, just as evolution provides animals with enough built-in reflexes to survive long enough to learn for themselves, it would be reasonable to provide an artificial intelligent agent with some initial knowledge as well as an ability to learn. After sufficient experience of its environment, the behavior of a rational agent can become effectively independent of its prior knowledge. Hence, the incorporation of learning allows one to design a single rational agent that will succeed in a vast variety of environments.
2363-31
People have always needed to eat, and they always will. Rising emphasis on self-expression values does not put an end to material desires. But prevailing economic orientations are gradually being reshaped. People who work in the knowledge sector continue to seek high salaries, but they place equal or greater emphasis on doing stimulating work and being able to follow their own time schedules. Consumption is becoming progressively less determined by the need for sustenance and the practical use of the goods consumed. People still eat, but a growing component of food's value is determined by its nonmaterial aspects. People pay a premium to eat exotic cuisines that provide an interesting experience or that symbolize a distinctive life-style. The publics of postindustrial societies place growing emphasis on "political consumerism," such as boycotting goods whose production violates ecological or ethical standards. Consumption is less and less a matter of sustenance and more and more a question of life-style ― and choice.
2363-32
In labor-sharing groups, people contribute labor to other people on a regular basis (for seasonal agricultural work such as harvesting) or on an irregular basis (in the event of a crisis such as the need to rebuild a barn damaged by fire). Labor sharing groups are part of what has been called a "moral economy" since no one keeps formal records on how much any family puts in or takes out. Instead, accounting is socially regulated. The group has a sense of moral community based on years of trust and sharing. In a certain community of North America, labor sharing is a major economic factor of social cohesion. When a family needs a new barn or faces repair work that requires group labor, a barn-raising party is called. Many families show up to help. Adult men provide manual labor, and adult women provide food for the event. Later, when another family needs help, they call on the same people.
2363-33
Whatever their differences, scientists and artists begin with the same question: can you and I see the same thing the same way？ If so, how? The scientific thinker looks for features of the thing that can be stripped of subjectivity ― ideally, those aspects that can be quantified and whose values will thus never change from one observer to the next. In this way, he arrives at a reality independent of all observers. The artist, on the other hand, relies on the strength of her artistry to effect a marriage between her own subjectivity and that of her readers. To a scientific thinker, this must sound like magical thinking: you're saying you will imagine something so hard it'll pop into someone else's head exactly the way you envision it? The artist has sought the opposite of the scientist's observer-independent reality. She creates a reality dependent upon observers, indeed a reality in which human beings must participate in order for it to exist at all.
2363-34
One of the common themes of the Western philosophical tradition is the distinction between sensual perceptions and rational knowledge. Since Plato, the supremacy of rational reason is based on the assertion that it is able to extract true knowledge from experience. As the discussion in the Republic helps to explain, perceptions are inherently unreliable and misleading because the senses are subject to errors and illusions. Only the rational discourse has the tools to overcome illusions and to point towards true knowledge. For instance, perception suggests that a figure in the distance is smaller than it really is. Yet, the application of logical reasoning will reveal that the figure only appears small because it obeys the laws of geometrical perspective. Nevertheless, even after the perspectival correction is applied and reason concludes that perception is misleading, the figure still appears small, and the truth of the matter is revealed not in the perception of the figure but in its rational representation.
To the extent that an agent relies on the prior knowledge of its designer rather than on its own percepts, we say that the agent lacks autonomy. A rational agent should be autonomous ― it should learn what it can to compensate for partial or incorrect prior knowledge. For example, a vacuum-cleaning agent that learns to foresee where and when additional dirt will appear will do better than one that does not. As a practical matter, one seldom requires complete autonomy from the start: when the agent has had little or no experience, it would have to act randomly unless the designer gave some assistance. So, just as evolution provides animals with enough built-in reflexes to survive long enough to learn for themselves, it would be reasonable to provide an artificial intelligent agent with some initial knowledge as well as an ability to learn. After sufficient experience of its environment, the behavior of a rational agent can become effectively independent of its prior knowledge. Hence, the incorporation of learning allows one to design a single rational agent that will succeed in a vast variety of environments.
2363-31
People have always needed to eat, and they always will. Rising emphasis on self-expression values does not put an end to material desires. But prevailing economic orientations are gradually being reshaped. People who work in the knowledge sector continue to seek high salaries, but they place equal or greater emphasis on doing stimulating work and being able to follow their own time schedules. Consumption is becoming progressively less determined by the need for sustenance and the practical use of the goods consumed. People still eat, but a growing component of food's value is determined by its nonmaterial aspects. People pay a premium to eat exotic cuisines that provide an interesting experience or that symbolize a distinctive life-style. The publics of postindustrial societies place growing emphasis on "political consumerism," such as boycotting goods whose production violates ecological or ethical standards. Consumption is less and less a matter of sustenance and more and more a question of life-style ― and choice.
2363-32
In labor-sharing groups, people contribute labor to other people on a regular basis (for seasonal agricultural work such as harvesting) or on an irregular basis (in the event of a crisis such as the need to rebuild a barn damaged by fire). Labor sharing groups are part of what has been called a "moral economy" since no one keeps formal records on how much any family puts in or takes out. Instead, accounting is socially regulated. The group has a sense of moral community based on years of trust and sharing. In a certain community of North America, labor sharing is a major economic factor of social cohesion. When a family needs a new barn or faces repair work that requires group labor, a barn-raising party is called. Many families show up to help. Adult men provide manual labor, and adult women provide food for the event. Later, when another family needs help, they call on the same people.
2363-33
Whatever their differences, scientists and artists begin with the same question: can you and I see the same thing the same way？ If so, how? The scientific thinker looks for features of the thing that can be stripped of subjectivity ― ideally, those aspects that can be quantified and whose values will thus never change from one observer to the next. In this way, he arrives at a reality independent of all observers. The artist, on the other hand, relies on the strength of her artistry to effect a marriage between her own subjectivity and that of her readers. To a scientific thinker, this must sound like magical thinking: you're saying you will imagine something so hard it'll pop into someone else's head exactly the way you envision it? The artist has sought the opposite of the scientist's observer-independent reality. She creates a reality dependent upon observers, indeed a reality in which human beings must participate in order for it to exist at all.
2363-34
One of the common themes of the Western philosophical tradition is the distinction between sensual perceptions and rational knowledge. Since Plato, the supremacy of rational reason is based on the assertion that it is able to extract true knowledge from experience. As the discussion in the Republic helps to explain, perceptions are inherently unreliable and misleading because the senses are subject to errors and illusions. Only the rational discourse has the tools to overcome illusions and to point towards true knowledge. For instance, perception suggests that a figure in the distance is smaller than it really is. Yet, the application of logical reasoning will reveal that the figure only appears small because it obeys the laws of geometrical perspective. Nevertheless, even after the perspectival correction is applied and reason concludes that perception is misleading, the figure still appears small, and the truth of the matter is revealed not in the perception of the figure but in its rational representation.
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2363 본문읽기 10
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 4. 12:01
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2363-23
There are pressures within the museum that cause it to emphasise what happens in the galleries over the activities that take place in its unseen zones. In an era when museums are forced to increase their earnings, they often focus their energies on modernising their galleries or mounting temporary exhibitions to bring more and more audiences through the door. In other words, as museums struggle to survive in a competitive economy, their budgets often prioritise those parts of themselves that are consumable: infotainment in the galleries, goods and services in the cafes and the shops. The unlit, unglamorous storerooms, if they are ever discussed, are at best presented as service areas that process objects for the exhibition halls. And at worst, as museums pour more and more resources into their publicly visible faces, the spaces of storage may even suffer, their modernisation being kept on hold or being given less and less space to house the expanding collections and serve their complex conservation needs.
2363-24
Hyper-mobility ― the notion that more travel at faster speeds covering longer distances generates greater economic success ― seems to be a distinguishing feature of urban areas, where more than half of the world's population currently reside. By 2005, approximately 7.5 billion trips were made each day in cities worldwide. In 2050, there may be three to four times as many passenger-kilometres travelled as in the year 2000, infrastructure and energy prices permitting. Freight movement could also rise more than threefold during the same period. Mobility flows have become a key dynamic of urbanization, with the associated infrastructure invariably constituting the backbone of urban form. Yet, despite the increasing level of urban mobility worldwide, access to places, activities and services has become increasingly difficult. Not only is it less convenient ― in terms of time, cost and comfort ― to access locations in cities, but the very process of moving around in cities generates a number of negative externalities. Accordingly, many of the world's cities face an unprecedented accessibility crisis, and are characterized by unsustainable mobility systems.
2363-25
The above graph shows the share of the EU-28 population participating in tourism in 2017 by age group and destination category. The share of people in the No Trips category was over 30% in each of the five age groups. The percentage of people in the Outbound Trips Only category was higher in the 25-34 age group than in the 35-44 age group. In the 35-44 age group, the percentage of people in the Domestic Trips Only category was 34.2%. The percentage of people in the Domestic
There are pressures within the museum that cause it to emphasise what happens in the galleries over the activities that take place in its unseen zones. In an era when museums are forced to increase their earnings, they often focus their energies on modernising their galleries or mounting temporary exhibitions to bring more and more audiences through the door. In other words, as museums struggle to survive in a competitive economy, their budgets often prioritise those parts of themselves that are consumable: infotainment in the galleries, goods and services in the cafes and the shops. The unlit, unglamorous storerooms, if they are ever discussed, are at best presented as service areas that process objects for the exhibition halls. And at worst, as museums pour more and more resources into their publicly visible faces, the spaces of storage may even suffer, their modernisation being kept on hold or being given less and less space to house the expanding collections and serve their complex conservation needs.
2363-24
Hyper-mobility ― the notion that more travel at faster speeds covering longer distances generates greater economic success ― seems to be a distinguishing feature of urban areas, where more than half of the world's population currently reside. By 2005, approximately 7.5 billion trips were made each day in cities worldwide. In 2050, there may be three to four times as many passenger-kilometres travelled as in the year 2000, infrastructure and energy prices permitting. Freight movement could also rise more than threefold during the same period. Mobility flows have become a key dynamic of urbanization, with the associated infrastructure invariably constituting the backbone of urban form. Yet, despite the increasing level of urban mobility worldwide, access to places, activities and services has become increasingly difficult. Not only is it less convenient ― in terms of time, cost and comfort ― to access locations in cities, but the very process of moving around in cities generates a number of negative externalities. Accordingly, many of the world's cities face an unprecedented accessibility crisis, and are characterized by unsustainable mobility systems.
2363-25
The above graph shows the share of the EU-28 population participating in tourism in 2017 by age group and destination category. The share of people in the No Trips category was over 30% in each of the five age groups. The percentage of people in the Outbound Trips Only category was higher in the 25-34 age group than in the 35-44 age group. In the 35-44 age group, the percentage of people in the Domestic Trips Only category was 34.2%. The percentage of people in the Domestic
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2363 본문읽기 5
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 4. 12:01
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2363-18
Custard Valley Park's grand reopening event will be held on June 1st. For this exciting occasion, we are offering free admission to all visitors on the reopening day. There will be a food stand selling ice cream and snacks. We would like to invite you, our valued members, to celebrate this event. Please come and explore the park's new features such as tennis courts and a flower garden. Just relax and enjoy the beautiful scenery. We are confident that you will love the new changes, and we are looking forward to seeing you soon.
2363-19
While the mechanic worked on her car, Jennifer walked back and forth in the waiting room. She was deeply concerned about how much it was going to cost to get her car fixed. Her car's engine had started making noises and kept losing power that morning, and she had heard that replacing an engine could be very expensive. After a few minutes, the mechanic came back into the waiting room. "I've got some good news. It was just a dirty spark plug. I already wiped it clean and your car is as good as new." He handed her the bill and when she checked it, the overall cost of repairs came to less than ten dollars. That was far less than she had expected and she felt at ease, knowing she could easily afford it.
2363-20
Certain hindrances to multifaceted creative activity may lie in premature specialization, i.e., having to choose the direction of education or to focus on developing one ability too early in life. However, development of creative ability in one domain may enhance effectiveness in other domains that require similar skills, and flexible switching between generality and specificity is helpful to productivity in many domains. Excessive specificity may result in information from outside the domain being underestimated and unavailable, which leads to fixedness of thinking, whereas excessive generality causes chaos, vagueness, and shallowness. Both tendencies pose a threat to the transfer of knowledge and skills between domains. What should therefore be optimal for the development of cross-domain creativity is support for young people in taking up creative challenges in a specific domain and coupling it with encouragement to apply knowledge and skills in, as well as from, other domains, disciplines, and tasks.
2363-21
Lawyers sometimes describe ownership as a bundle of sticks. This metaphor was introduced about a century ago, and it has dramatically transformed the teaching and practice of law. The metaphor is useful because it helps us see ownership as a grouping of interpersonal rights that can be separated and put back together. When you say It's mine in reference to a resource, often that means you own a lot of the sticks that make up the full bundle: the sell stick, the rent stick, the right to mortgage, license, give away, even destroy the thing. Often, though, we split the sticks up, as for a piece of land: there may be a landowner, a bank with a mortgage, a tenant with a lease, a plumber with a license to enter the land, an oil company with mineral rights. Each of these parties owns a stick in the bundle.
2363-22
When it comes to the Internet, it just pays to be a little paranoid (but not a lot). Given the level of anonymity with all that resides on the Internet, it's sensible to question the validity of any data that you may receive. Typically it's to our natural instinct when we meet someone coming down a sidewalk to place yourself in some manner of protective position, especially when they introduce themselves as having known you, much to your surprise. By design, we set up challenges in which the individual must validate how they know us by presenting scenarios, names or acquaintances, or evidence by which to validate (that is, photographs). Once we have received that information and it has gone through a cognitive validation, we accept that person as more trustworthy. All this happens in a matter of minutes but is a natural defense mechanism that we perform in the real world. However, in the virtual world, we have a tendency to be less defensive, as there appears to be no physical threat to our well-being.
Custard Valley Park's grand reopening event will be held on June 1st. For this exciting occasion, we are offering free admission to all visitors on the reopening day. There will be a food stand selling ice cream and snacks. We would like to invite you, our valued members, to celebrate this event. Please come and explore the park's new features such as tennis courts and a flower garden. Just relax and enjoy the beautiful scenery. We are confident that you will love the new changes, and we are looking forward to seeing you soon.
2363-19
While the mechanic worked on her car, Jennifer walked back and forth in the waiting room. She was deeply concerned about how much it was going to cost to get her car fixed. Her car's engine had started making noises and kept losing power that morning, and she had heard that replacing an engine could be very expensive. After a few minutes, the mechanic came back into the waiting room. "I've got some good news. It was just a dirty spark plug. I already wiped it clean and your car is as good as new." He handed her the bill and when she checked it, the overall cost of repairs came to less than ten dollars. That was far less than she had expected and she felt at ease, knowing she could easily afford it.
2363-20
Certain hindrances to multifaceted creative activity may lie in premature specialization, i.e., having to choose the direction of education or to focus on developing one ability too early in life. However, development of creative ability in one domain may enhance effectiveness in other domains that require similar skills, and flexible switching between generality and specificity is helpful to productivity in many domains. Excessive specificity may result in information from outside the domain being underestimated and unavailable, which leads to fixedness of thinking, whereas excessive generality causes chaos, vagueness, and shallowness. Both tendencies pose a threat to the transfer of knowledge and skills between domains. What should therefore be optimal for the development of cross-domain creativity is support for young people in taking up creative challenges in a specific domain and coupling it with encouragement to apply knowledge and skills in, as well as from, other domains, disciplines, and tasks.
2363-21
Lawyers sometimes describe ownership as a bundle of sticks. This metaphor was introduced about a century ago, and it has dramatically transformed the teaching and practice of law. The metaphor is useful because it helps us see ownership as a grouping of interpersonal rights that can be separated and put back together. When you say It's mine in reference to a resource, often that means you own a lot of the sticks that make up the full bundle: the sell stick, the rent stick, the right to mortgage, license, give away, even destroy the thing. Often, though, we split the sticks up, as for a piece of land: there may be a landowner, a bank with a mortgage, a tenant with a lease, a plumber with a license to enter the land, an oil company with mineral rights. Each of these parties owns a stick in the bundle.
2363-22
When it comes to the Internet, it just pays to be a little paranoid (but not a lot). Given the level of anonymity with all that resides on the Internet, it's sensible to question the validity of any data that you may receive. Typically it's to our natural instinct when we meet someone coming down a sidewalk to place yourself in some manner of protective position, especially when they introduce themselves as having known you, much to your surprise. By design, we set up challenges in which the individual must validate how they know us by presenting scenarios, names or acquaintances, or evidence by which to validate (that is, photographs). Once we have received that information and it has gone through a cognitive validation, we accept that person as more trustworthy. All this happens in a matter of minutes but is a natural defense mechanism that we perform in the real world. However, in the virtual world, we have a tendency to be less defensive, as there appears to be no physical threat to our well-being.
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2362 본문읽기 20
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 4. 12:01
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2362-35
Before getting licensed to drive a cab in London, a person has to pass an incredibly difficult test with an intimidating name ─ "The Knowledge." The test involves memorizing the layout of more than 20,000 streets in the Greater London area - a feat that involves an incredible amount of memory resources. In fact, fewer than 50 percent of the people who sign up for taxi driver training pass the test, even after spending two or three years studying for it! And as it turns out, the brains of London cabbies are different from non-cab-driving humans in ways that reflect their herculean memory efforts. In fact, the part of the brain that has been most frequently associated with spatial memory, the tail of the sea horse-shaped brain region called the hippocampus, is bigger than average in these taxi drivers.
2362-36
When evaluating a policy, people tend to concentrate on how the policy will fix some particular problem while ignoring or downplaying other effects it may have. Economists often refer to this situation as The Law of Unintended Consequences. For instance, suppose that you impose a tariff on imported steel in order to protect the jobs of domestic steelworkers. If you impose a high enough tariff, their jobs will indeed be protected from competition by foreign steel companies. But an unintended consequence is that the jobs of some autoworkers will be lost to foreign competition. Why? The tariff that protects steelworkers raises the price of the steel that domestic automobile makers need to build their cars. As a result, domestic automobile manufacturers have to raise the prices of their cars, making them relatively less attractive than foreign cars. Raising prices tends to reduce domestic car sales, so some domestic autoworkers lose their jobs.
2362-37
Species that are found in only one area are called endemic species and are especially vulnerable to extinction. They exist on islands and in other unique small areas, especially in tropical rain forests where most species are highly specialized. One example is the brilliantly colored golden toad once found only in a small area of lush rain forests in Costa Rica's mountainous region. Despite living in the country's well-protected Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, by 1989, the golden toad had apparently become extinct. Much of the moisture that supported its rain forest habitat came in the form of moisture-laden clouds blowing in from the Caribbean Sea. But warmer air from global climate change caused these clouds to rise, depriving the forests of moisture, and the habitat for the golden toad and many other species dried up. The golden toad appears to be one of the first victims of climate change caused largely by global warming.
2362-38
The fundamental nature of the experimental method is manipulation and control. Scientists manipulate a variable of interest, and see if there's a difference. At the same time, they attempt to control for the potential effects of all other variables. The importance of controlled experiments in identifying the underlying causes of events cannot be overstated. In the real-uncontrolled-world, variables are often correlated. For example, people who take vitamin supplements may have different eating and exercise habits than people who don't take vitamins. As a result, if we want to study the health effects of vitamins, we can't merely observe the real world, since any of these factors (the vitamins, diet, or exercise) may affect health. Rather, we have to create a situation that doesn't actually occur in the real world. That's just what scientific experiments do. They try to separate the naturally occurring relationship in the world by manipulating one specific variable at a time, while holding everything else constant.
2362-39
Why do people in the Mediterranean live longer and have a lower incidence of disease? Some people say it's because of what they eat. Their diet is full of fresh fruits, fish, vegetables, whole grains, and nuts. Individuals in these cultures drink red wine and use great amounts of olive oil. Why is that food pattern healthy? One reason is that they are eating a palette of colors. More and more research is surfacing that shows us the benefits of the thousands of colorful "phytochemicals"(phyto=plant) that exist in foods. These healthful, non‑nutritive compounds in plants provide color and function to the plant and add to the health of the human body. Each color connects to a particular compound that serves a specific function in the body. For example, if you don't eat purple foods, you are probably missing out on anthocyanins, important brain protection compounds. Similarly, if you avoid green‑colored foods, you may be lacking chlorophyll, a plant antioxidant that guards your cells from damage.
Before getting licensed to drive a cab in London, a person has to pass an incredibly difficult test with an intimidating name ─ "The Knowledge." The test involves memorizing the layout of more than 20,000 streets in the Greater London area - a feat that involves an incredible amount of memory resources. In fact, fewer than 50 percent of the people who sign up for taxi driver training pass the test, even after spending two or three years studying for it! And as it turns out, the brains of London cabbies are different from non-cab-driving humans in ways that reflect their herculean memory efforts. In fact, the part of the brain that has been most frequently associated with spatial memory, the tail of the sea horse-shaped brain region called the hippocampus, is bigger than average in these taxi drivers.
2362-36
When evaluating a policy, people tend to concentrate on how the policy will fix some particular problem while ignoring or downplaying other effects it may have. Economists often refer to this situation as The Law of Unintended Consequences. For instance, suppose that you impose a tariff on imported steel in order to protect the jobs of domestic steelworkers. If you impose a high enough tariff, their jobs will indeed be protected from competition by foreign steel companies. But an unintended consequence is that the jobs of some autoworkers will be lost to foreign competition. Why? The tariff that protects steelworkers raises the price of the steel that domestic automobile makers need to build their cars. As a result, domestic automobile manufacturers have to raise the prices of their cars, making them relatively less attractive than foreign cars. Raising prices tends to reduce domestic car sales, so some domestic autoworkers lose their jobs.
2362-37
Species that are found in only one area are called endemic species and are especially vulnerable to extinction. They exist on islands and in other unique small areas, especially in tropical rain forests where most species are highly specialized. One example is the brilliantly colored golden toad once found only in a small area of lush rain forests in Costa Rica's mountainous region. Despite living in the country's well-protected Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, by 1989, the golden toad had apparently become extinct. Much of the moisture that supported its rain forest habitat came in the form of moisture-laden clouds blowing in from the Caribbean Sea. But warmer air from global climate change caused these clouds to rise, depriving the forests of moisture, and the habitat for the golden toad and many other species dried up. The golden toad appears to be one of the first victims of climate change caused largely by global warming.
2362-38
The fundamental nature of the experimental method is manipulation and control. Scientists manipulate a variable of interest, and see if there's a difference. At the same time, they attempt to control for the potential effects of all other variables. The importance of controlled experiments in identifying the underlying causes of events cannot be overstated. In the real-uncontrolled-world, variables are often correlated. For example, people who take vitamin supplements may have different eating and exercise habits than people who don't take vitamins. As a result, if we want to study the health effects of vitamins, we can't merely observe the real world, since any of these factors (the vitamins, diet, or exercise) may affect health. Rather, we have to create a situation that doesn't actually occur in the real world. That's just what scientific experiments do. They try to separate the naturally occurring relationship in the world by manipulating one specific variable at a time, while holding everything else constant.
2362-39
Why do people in the Mediterranean live longer and have a lower incidence of disease? Some people say it's because of what they eat. Their diet is full of fresh fruits, fish, vegetables, whole grains, and nuts. Individuals in these cultures drink red wine and use great amounts of olive oil. Why is that food pattern healthy? One reason is that they are eating a palette of colors. More and more research is surfacing that shows us the benefits of the thousands of colorful "phytochemicals"(phyto=plant) that exist in foods. These healthful, non‑nutritive compounds in plants provide color and function to the plant and add to the health of the human body. Each color connects to a particular compound that serves a specific function in the body. For example, if you don't eat purple foods, you are probably missing out on anthocyanins, important brain protection compounds. Similarly, if you avoid green‑colored foods, you may be lacking chlorophyll, a plant antioxidant that guards your cells from damage.
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2362 본문읽기 15
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 4. 12:01
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2362-30
Over the past several decades, there have been some agreements to reduce the debt of poor nations, but other economic challenges (like trade barriers) remain. Nontariff trade measures, such as quotas, subsidies, and restrictions on exports, are increasingly prevalent and may be enacted for policy reasons having nothing to do with trade. However, they have a discriminatory effect on exports from countries that lack the resources to comply with requirements of nontariff measures imposed by rich nations. For example, the huge subsidies that rich nations give to their farmers make it very difficult for farmers in the rest of the world to compete with them. Another example would be domestic health or safety regulations, which, though not specifically targeting imports, could impose significant costs on foreign manufacturers seeking to conform to the importer's market. Industries in developing markets may have more difficulty absorbing these additional costs.
2362-31
In the course of his research on business strategy and the environment, Michael Porter noticed a peculiar pattern: Businesses seemed to be profiting from regulation. He also discovered that the stricter regulations were prompting more innovation than the weaker ones. The Dutch flower industry provides an illustration. For many years, the companies producing Holland's world-renowned tulips and other cut flowers were also contaminating the country's water and soil with fertilizers and pesticides. In 1991, the Dutch government adopted a policy designed to cut pesticide use in half by 2000 ― a goal they ultimately achieved. Facing increasingly strict regulation, greenhouse growers realized they had to develop new methods if they were going to maintain product quality with fewer pesticides. In response, they shifted to a cultivation method that circulates water in closed-loop systems and grows flowers in a rock wool substrate. The new system not only reduced the pollution released into the environment; it also increased profits by giving companies greater control over growing conditions.
2362-32
It's hard to pay more for the speedy but highly skilled person, simply because there's less effort being observed. Two researchers once did a study in which they asked people how much they would pay for data recovery. They found that people would pay a little more for a greater quantity of rescued data, but what they were most sensitive to was the number of hours the technician worked. When the data recovery took only a few minutes, willingness to pay was low, but when it took more than a week to recover the same amount of data, people were willing to pay much more. Think about it: They were willing to pay more for the slower service with the same outcome. Fundamentally, when we value effort over outcome, we're paying for incompetence. Although it is actually irrational, we feel more rational, and more comfortable, paying for incompetence.
2362-33
In adolescence many of us had the experience of falling under the sway of a great book or writer. We became entranced by the novel ideas in the book, and because we were so open to influence, these early encounters with exciting ideas sank deeply into our minds and became part of our own thought processes, affecting us decades after we absorbed them. Such influences enriched our mental landscape, and in fact our intelligence depends on the ability to absorb the lessons and ideas of those who are older and wiser. Just as the body tightens with age, however, so does the mind. And just as our sense of weakness and vulnerability motivated the desire to learn, so does our creeping sense of superiority slowly close us off to new ideas and influences. Some may advocate that we all become more skeptical in the modern world, but in fact a far greater danger comes from the increasing closing of the mind that burdens us as individuals as we get older, and seems to be burdening our culture in general.
2362-34
Many people look for safety and security in popular thinking. They figure that if a lot of people are doing something, then it must be right. It must be a good idea. If most people accept it, then it probably represents fairness, equality, compassion, and sensitivity, right? Not necessarily. Popular thinking said the earth was the center of the universe, yet Copernicus studied the stars and planets and proved mathematically that the earth and the other planets in our solar system revolved around the sun. Popular thinking said surgery didn't require clean instruments, yet Joseph Lister studied the high death rates in hospitals and introduced antiseptic practices that immediately saved lives. Popular thinking said that women shouldn't have the right to vote, yet people like Emmeline Pankhurst and Susan B. Anthony fought for and won that right. We must always remember there is a huge difference between acceptance and intelligence. People may say that there's safety in numbers, but that's not always true.
Over the past several decades, there have been some agreements to reduce the debt of poor nations, but other economic challenges (like trade barriers) remain. Nontariff trade measures, such as quotas, subsidies, and restrictions on exports, are increasingly prevalent and may be enacted for policy reasons having nothing to do with trade. However, they have a discriminatory effect on exports from countries that lack the resources to comply with requirements of nontariff measures imposed by rich nations. For example, the huge subsidies that rich nations give to their farmers make it very difficult for farmers in the rest of the world to compete with them. Another example would be domestic health or safety regulations, which, though not specifically targeting imports, could impose significant costs on foreign manufacturers seeking to conform to the importer's market. Industries in developing markets may have more difficulty absorbing these additional costs.
2362-31
In the course of his research on business strategy and the environment, Michael Porter noticed a peculiar pattern: Businesses seemed to be profiting from regulation. He also discovered that the stricter regulations were prompting more innovation than the weaker ones. The Dutch flower industry provides an illustration. For many years, the companies producing Holland's world-renowned tulips and other cut flowers were also contaminating the country's water and soil with fertilizers and pesticides. In 1991, the Dutch government adopted a policy designed to cut pesticide use in half by 2000 ― a goal they ultimately achieved. Facing increasingly strict regulation, greenhouse growers realized they had to develop new methods if they were going to maintain product quality with fewer pesticides. In response, they shifted to a cultivation method that circulates water in closed-loop systems and grows flowers in a rock wool substrate. The new system not only reduced the pollution released into the environment; it also increased profits by giving companies greater control over growing conditions.
2362-32
It's hard to pay more for the speedy but highly skilled person, simply because there's less effort being observed. Two researchers once did a study in which they asked people how much they would pay for data recovery. They found that people would pay a little more for a greater quantity of rescued data, but what they were most sensitive to was the number of hours the technician worked. When the data recovery took only a few minutes, willingness to pay was low, but when it took more than a week to recover the same amount of data, people were willing to pay much more. Think about it: They were willing to pay more for the slower service with the same outcome. Fundamentally, when we value effort over outcome, we're paying for incompetence. Although it is actually irrational, we feel more rational, and more comfortable, paying for incompetence.
2362-33
In adolescence many of us had the experience of falling under the sway of a great book or writer. We became entranced by the novel ideas in the book, and because we were so open to influence, these early encounters with exciting ideas sank deeply into our minds and became part of our own thought processes, affecting us decades after we absorbed them. Such influences enriched our mental landscape, and in fact our intelligence depends on the ability to absorb the lessons and ideas of those who are older and wiser. Just as the body tightens with age, however, so does the mind. And just as our sense of weakness and vulnerability motivated the desire to learn, so does our creeping sense of superiority slowly close us off to new ideas and influences. Some may advocate that we all become more skeptical in the modern world, but in fact a far greater danger comes from the increasing closing of the mind that burdens us as individuals as we get older, and seems to be burdening our culture in general.
2362-34
Many people look for safety and security in popular thinking. They figure that if a lot of people are doing something, then it must be right. It must be a good idea. If most people accept it, then it probably represents fairness, equality, compassion, and sensitivity, right? Not necessarily. Popular thinking said the earth was the center of the universe, yet Copernicus studied the stars and planets and proved mathematically that the earth and the other planets in our solar system revolved around the sun. Popular thinking said surgery didn't require clean instruments, yet Joseph Lister studied the high death rates in hospitals and introduced antiseptic practices that immediately saved lives. Popular thinking said that women shouldn't have the right to vote, yet people like Emmeline Pankhurst and Susan B. Anthony fought for and won that right. We must always remember there is a huge difference between acceptance and intelligence. People may say that there's safety in numbers, but that's not always true.
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2362 본문읽기 10
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 4. 12:01
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2362-23
Education must focus on the trunk of the tree of knowledge, revealing the ways in which the branches, twigs, and leaves all emerge from a common core. Tools for thinking stem from this core, providing a common language with which practitioners in different fields may share their experience of the process of innovation and discover links between their creative activities. When the same terms are employed across the curriculum, students begin to link different subjects and classes. If they practice abstracting in writing class, if they work on abstracting in painting or drawing class, and if, in all cases, they call it abstracting, they begin to understand how to think beyond disciplinary boundaries. They see how to transform their thoughts from one mode of conception and expression to another. Linking the disciplines comes naturally when the terms and tools are presented as part of a universal imagination.
2362-24
New words and expressions emerge continually in response to new situations, ideas and feelings. The Oxford English Dictionary publishes supplements of new words and expressions that have entered the language. Some people deplore this kind of thing and see it as a drift from correct English. But it was only in the eighteenth century that any attempt was made to formalize spelling and punctuation of English at all. The language we speak in the twenty-first century would be virtually unintelligible to Shakespeare, and so would his way of speaking to us. Alvin Toffler estimated that Shakespeare would probably only understand about 250,000 of the 450,000 words in general use in the English language now. In other words, so to speak, if Shakespeare were to materialize in London today he would understand, on average, only five out of every nine words in our vocabulary.
2362-25
The graph above shows the average number of students per teacher in public elementary and secondary schools across selected countries in 2019. Belgium was the only country with a smaller number of students per teacher than the OECD average in both public elementary and secondary schools. In both public elementary and secondary schools, the average number of students per teacher was the largest in Mexico. In public elementary schools, there was a smaller number of students per teacher on average in Germany than in Japan, whereas the reverse was true in public secondary schools. The average number of students per teacher in public secondary schools in Germany was less than half that in the United Kingdom. Of the five countries, Mexico was the only country with more students per teacher in public secondary schools than in public elementary schools.
2362-26
Born in 1627 in Black Notley, Essex, England, John Ray was the son of the village blacksmith. At 16, he went to Cambridge University, where he studied widely and lectured on topics from Greek to mathematics, before joining the priesthood in 1660. To recover from an illness in 1650, he had taken to nature walks and developed an interest in botany. Accompanied by his wealthy student and supporter Francis Willughby, Ray toured Britain and Europe in the 1660s, studying and collecting plants and animals. He married Margaret Oakley in 1673 and, after leaving Willughby's household, lived quietly in Black Notley to the age of 77. He spent his later years studying samples in order to assemble plant and animal catalogues. He wrote more than twenty works on theology and his travels, as well as on plants and their form and function.
2362-29
Research psychologists often work with self-report data, made up of participants' verbal accounts of their behavior. This is the case whenever questionnaires, interviews, or personality inventories are used to measure variables. Self-report methods can be quite useful. They take advantage of the fact that people have a unique opportunity to observe themselves full-time. However, self-reports can be plagued by several kinds of distortion. One of the most problematic of these distortions is the social desirability bias, which is a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself. Subjects who are influenced by this bias work overtime trying to create a favorable impression, especially when subjects are asked about sensitive issues. For example, many survey respondents will report that they voted in an election or gave to a charity when in fact it is possible to determine that they did not.
Education must focus on the trunk of the tree of knowledge, revealing the ways in which the branches, twigs, and leaves all emerge from a common core. Tools for thinking stem from this core, providing a common language with which practitioners in different fields may share their experience of the process of innovation and discover links between their creative activities. When the same terms are employed across the curriculum, students begin to link different subjects and classes. If they practice abstracting in writing class, if they work on abstracting in painting or drawing class, and if, in all cases, they call it abstracting, they begin to understand how to think beyond disciplinary boundaries. They see how to transform their thoughts from one mode of conception and expression to another. Linking the disciplines comes naturally when the terms and tools are presented as part of a universal imagination.
2362-24
New words and expressions emerge continually in response to new situations, ideas and feelings. The Oxford English Dictionary publishes supplements of new words and expressions that have entered the language. Some people deplore this kind of thing and see it as a drift from correct English. But it was only in the eighteenth century that any attempt was made to formalize spelling and punctuation of English at all. The language we speak in the twenty-first century would be virtually unintelligible to Shakespeare, and so would his way of speaking to us. Alvin Toffler estimated that Shakespeare would probably only understand about 250,000 of the 450,000 words in general use in the English language now. In other words, so to speak, if Shakespeare were to materialize in London today he would understand, on average, only five out of every nine words in our vocabulary.
2362-25
The graph above shows the average number of students per teacher in public elementary and secondary schools across selected countries in 2019. Belgium was the only country with a smaller number of students per teacher than the OECD average in both public elementary and secondary schools. In both public elementary and secondary schools, the average number of students per teacher was the largest in Mexico. In public elementary schools, there was a smaller number of students per teacher on average in Germany than in Japan, whereas the reverse was true in public secondary schools. The average number of students per teacher in public secondary schools in Germany was less than half that in the United Kingdom. Of the five countries, Mexico was the only country with more students per teacher in public secondary schools than in public elementary schools.
2362-26
Born in 1627 in Black Notley, Essex, England, John Ray was the son of the village blacksmith. At 16, he went to Cambridge University, where he studied widely and lectured on topics from Greek to mathematics, before joining the priesthood in 1660. To recover from an illness in 1650, he had taken to nature walks and developed an interest in botany. Accompanied by his wealthy student and supporter Francis Willughby, Ray toured Britain and Europe in the 1660s, studying and collecting plants and animals. He married Margaret Oakley in 1673 and, after leaving Willughby's household, lived quietly in Black Notley to the age of 77. He spent his later years studying samples in order to assemble plant and animal catalogues. He wrote more than twenty works on theology and his travels, as well as on plants and their form and function.
2362-29
Research psychologists often work with self-report data, made up of participants' verbal accounts of their behavior. This is the case whenever questionnaires, interviews, or personality inventories are used to measure variables. Self-report methods can be quite useful. They take advantage of the fact that people have a unique opportunity to observe themselves full-time. However, self-reports can be plagued by several kinds of distortion. One of the most problematic of these distortions is the social desirability bias, which is a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself. Subjects who are influenced by this bias work overtime trying to create a favorable impression, especially when subjects are asked about sensitive issues. For example, many survey respondents will report that they voted in an election or gave to a charity when in fact it is possible to determine that they did not.
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