232_s3 본문읽기 30
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 7. 14:26
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23수특-2401
The term common pool resources refers to resources that are available to all, but owned by no one. Nature-based examples include forests, oceans, and vistas, whereas common pool cultural resources can include a community's song, dance, and traditions. Many tourism products and experiences rely on common pool resources. The extent and accessibility of these resources has led McKean to suggest that common pool resources, in addition to being available to anyone, are difficult to protect and easy to deplete. Hardin presented the initial illustration of this concept in his influential article titled "The Tragedy of the Commons." In this article, he described a community that thrives on the growth of its cattle, which graze on communal pastureland. As demand grows, residents are inclined to maximize their benefits by ignoring the cumulative effect of each person grazing an additional head of cattle on the communal lands. Hardin asserted that the ignorance of individuals using common pool resources will lead to eventual depletion of the resource. The potential combined impact of individual use of common pool resources is an important element of tourism's sustainable development.
23수특-2402
If part of the attraction of the community to outsiders is its cultural heritage and traditions, that will likely change over time and frequently not for the better. Symbols of a historic culture may be pervasive, but only in a make-believe form. Tourist shops on small Pacific islands may sell replicas of native art ─ all turned out in huge quantities by manufacturers in other parts of the world. Plastic Black Forest clocks and Swiss music boxes are offered to tourists that are mass-produced in Taiwan or China. A commitment to craftsmanship and true local heritage vanishes. These false symbols of earlier times contribute to an overly commercial feeling at destinations and a sense that nothing seems real now, and perhaps never was. A danger lies in the loss of a sense of personal identity by residents and a feeling of being disconnected from their past. Their heritage and culture now seem less significant or important. It serves primarily as a commercial front for visitors who buy cheap trinkets and watch professionally staged shows that attempt to recreate cultural practices or historic events.
23수특-2403
Physical contests and games in Greek culture influenced art, philosophy and the everyday lives of people wealthy enough to train, hire professionals and travel to events. However, Greek contests and games were different from the organized competitive sports of today. First, they were grounded in religion; second, they lacked complex administrative structures; third, they did not involve measurements and record keeping from event to event. However, there is one major similarity: they often reproduced dominant patterns of social relations in society as a whole. The power and advantages that went with being wealthy, male, young and able-bodied in Greek society shaped the games and contests in ways that limited the participation of most people. Even the definitions of excellence used to evaluate performance reflected the abilities of young males. This meant that the abilities of others were substandard by definition ― if you could not do it as a young, able-bodied Greek man did it, you were doing it the wrong way. This legitimized and preserved the privilege enjoyed by a select group of men in Greek society.
23수특-25Gateway
Young contemporary artists who employ digital technologies in their practice rarely make reference to computers. For example, Wade Guyton, an abstractionist who uses a word processing program and inkjet printers, does not call himself a computer artist. Moreover, some critics, who admire his work, are little concerned about his extensive use of computers in the art-making process. This is a marked contrast from three decades ago when artists who utilized computers were labeled by critics ― often disapprovingly ― as computer artists. For the present generation of artists, the computer, or more appropriately, the laptop, is one in a collection of integrated, portable digital technologies that link their social and working life. With tablets and cell phones surpassing personal computers in Internet usage, and as slim digital devices resemble nothing like the room-sized mainframes and bulky desktop computers of previous decades, it now appears that the computer artist is finally extinct.
23수특-2501
In the field of musical expertise, there is a dichotomy of thinking. On the one hand, there is a widespread perception in the general population that expert musicians have innate talent, or giftedness, beyond ordinary abilities. Talent, as part of the vernacular in the field of music, is usually assumed to be a stable trait ― one is either born with musical talent or not. Music aptitude tests popular in the early to mid-twentieth century, such as the Seashore Tests of Musical Talent and the Music Aptitude Profile, attempted to find children who had this musical talent. On the other hand, there is a very real feeling that ability in music comes from a disciplined work ethic. It would be unacceptable, even for those considered talented, not to practice. In fact, those who are considered talented are expected to practice all the more.
The term common pool resources refers to resources that are available to all, but owned by no one. Nature-based examples include forests, oceans, and vistas, whereas common pool cultural resources can include a community's song, dance, and traditions. Many tourism products and experiences rely on common pool resources. The extent and accessibility of these resources has led McKean to suggest that common pool resources, in addition to being available to anyone, are difficult to protect and easy to deplete. Hardin presented the initial illustration of this concept in his influential article titled "The Tragedy of the Commons." In this article, he described a community that thrives on the growth of its cattle, which graze on communal pastureland. As demand grows, residents are inclined to maximize their benefits by ignoring the cumulative effect of each person grazing an additional head of cattle on the communal lands. Hardin asserted that the ignorance of individuals using common pool resources will lead to eventual depletion of the resource. The potential combined impact of individual use of common pool resources is an important element of tourism's sustainable development.
23수특-2402
If part of the attraction of the community to outsiders is its cultural heritage and traditions, that will likely change over time and frequently not for the better. Symbols of a historic culture may be pervasive, but only in a make-believe form. Tourist shops on small Pacific islands may sell replicas of native art ─ all turned out in huge quantities by manufacturers in other parts of the world. Plastic Black Forest clocks and Swiss music boxes are offered to tourists that are mass-produced in Taiwan or China. A commitment to craftsmanship and true local heritage vanishes. These false symbols of earlier times contribute to an overly commercial feeling at destinations and a sense that nothing seems real now, and perhaps never was. A danger lies in the loss of a sense of personal identity by residents and a feeling of being disconnected from their past. Their heritage and culture now seem less significant or important. It serves primarily as a commercial front for visitors who buy cheap trinkets and watch professionally staged shows that attempt to recreate cultural practices or historic events.
23수특-2403
Physical contests and games in Greek culture influenced art, philosophy and the everyday lives of people wealthy enough to train, hire professionals and travel to events. However, Greek contests and games were different from the organized competitive sports of today. First, they were grounded in religion; second, they lacked complex administrative structures; third, they did not involve measurements and record keeping from event to event. However, there is one major similarity: they often reproduced dominant patterns of social relations in society as a whole. The power and advantages that went with being wealthy, male, young and able-bodied in Greek society shaped the games and contests in ways that limited the participation of most people. Even the definitions of excellence used to evaluate performance reflected the abilities of young males. This meant that the abilities of others were substandard by definition ― if you could not do it as a young, able-bodied Greek man did it, you were doing it the wrong way. This legitimized and preserved the privilege enjoyed by a select group of men in Greek society.
23수특-25Gateway
Young contemporary artists who employ digital technologies in their practice rarely make reference to computers. For example, Wade Guyton, an abstractionist who uses a word processing program and inkjet printers, does not call himself a computer artist. Moreover, some critics, who admire his work, are little concerned about his extensive use of computers in the art-making process. This is a marked contrast from three decades ago when artists who utilized computers were labeled by critics ― often disapprovingly ― as computer artists. For the present generation of artists, the computer, or more appropriately, the laptop, is one in a collection of integrated, portable digital technologies that link their social and working life. With tablets and cell phones surpassing personal computers in Internet usage, and as slim digital devices resemble nothing like the room-sized mainframes and bulky desktop computers of previous decades, it now appears that the computer artist is finally extinct.
23수특-2501
In the field of musical expertise, there is a dichotomy of thinking. On the one hand, there is a widespread perception in the general population that expert musicians have innate talent, or giftedness, beyond ordinary abilities. Talent, as part of the vernacular in the field of music, is usually assumed to be a stable trait ― one is either born with musical talent or not. Music aptitude tests popular in the early to mid-twentieth century, such as the Seashore Tests of Musical Talent and the Music Aptitude Profile, attempted to find children who had this musical talent. On the other hand, there is a very real feeling that ability in music comes from a disciplined work ethic. It would be unacceptable, even for those considered talented, not to practice. In fact, those who are considered talented are expected to practice all the more.
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232_s3 본문읽기 25
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 7. 14:26
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23수특-1701
There are several theories about why older people experience "long-term" time compression so much more acutely than young people. It has been observed, for example, that for a twenty-year-old, ten years is half a lifetime, but for a fifty-year-old, the same span represents just 20 percent of one's life. As we age, a decade becomes an ever-smaller proportion of our life experience. Others have emphasized the fact that, in a ten-year span, younger people encounter more "turning points" than older people. In just ten years, a younger person is likely to graduate from college, woo and win a mate, start a family, and buy a house. Older people, in contrast, can easily pass a decade doing the same job and living in the same house with the same spouse. The absence of frequent life-changing events may partly explain why older people feel that the later decades seem to pass so quickly.
23수특-1702
Social mobility is upward or downward movement in social position over time in a society. That movement can be specific to individuals who change social positions or to categories of people, such as racial or ethnic groups. Social mobility between generations is referred to as intergenerational mobility. The self-made myth suggests that social position in the United States is largely up to the individual, implying that mobility is quite common and easy to achieve for those who apply themselves. However, what people believe and what is fact are often not the same. A recent experimental study found that Americans substantially and consistently overestimate the amount of income mobility and educational access in society. The higher one's social class, the more likely they are to overestimate social mobility. In other words, wealthy Americans tend to subscribe to the belief that pulling oneself out of poverty is easier than it actually is and that one's wealth is a result of hard work and initiative, rather than luck or birth.
23수특-1703
In Ancient Greece, many private individuals believed in the powers of magic, such as farmers who were always dependent on the weather. Even though the use of magic was widespread in Ancient Greece, there remained an official caution over its use. We know that the Greek authorities believed that magic was an activity capable of results, but they grew concerned about those who practiced harmful magic. So it was established that those who practiced harmful magic could be punished by civic action. This may be the reason why magic in the classical world was held in low esteem and condemned by speakers and writers. Likewise, we find certain intellectuals realizing that the power of magic could be abused. For example, Plato believed that those who sold spells and curse tablets should be punished. Epicurean and Stoic philosophers also believed that magic should be eliminated. This mistrust of magic, along with religion and a separation of humans from the divine world, created a need to develop new methods of understanding the world. It is thus understandable that the Ancient Greeks created the foundations for philosophy.
23수특-1704
The development psychologist Jerome Kagan measured changes in children's temperament between the ages of 4 months and 7 years. He classified several healthy 4-month-old infants as high reactors (easily excited or fearful) or low reactors (relaxed and unafraid), depending upon their responses to an unfamiliar stimulus. Kagan waved colorful mobiles in front of a baby, played a tape saying, "Hello baby, how are you doing today" and popped a balloon behind the baby's head. High reactors moved around violently and cried, while low reactors rested or even laughed during the tests. By the time these infants were 4 years old, some of the high reactors were quite shy, subdued, and quiet, while others had moved toward the center of Kagan's "shy-bold" continuum. By the age of 7, only 15 percent of the initially low reactors were enthusiastic, fearless, and highly sociable kids, and the rest had moved closer to the center. None of the high reactors became fearless, and none of the low reactors became fearful; in other words, environment only moderately affected the final outcome.
23수특-24Gateway
Consider two athletes who both want to play in college. One says she has to work very hard and the other uses goal setting to create a plan to stay on track and work on specific skills where she is lacking. Both are working hard but only the latter is working smart. It can be frustrating for athletes to work extremely hard but not make the progress they wanted. What can make the difference is drive ― utilizing the mental gear to maximize gains made in the technical and physical areas. Drive provides direction (goals), sustains effort (motivation), and creates a training mindset that goes beyond simply working hard. Drive applies direct force on your physical and technical gears, strengthening and polishing them so they can spin with vigor and purpose. While desire might make you spin those gears faster and harder as you work out or practice, drive is what built them in the first place.
There are several theories about why older people experience "long-term" time compression so much more acutely than young people. It has been observed, for example, that for a twenty-year-old, ten years is half a lifetime, but for a fifty-year-old, the same span represents just 20 percent of one's life. As we age, a decade becomes an ever-smaller proportion of our life experience. Others have emphasized the fact that, in a ten-year span, younger people encounter more "turning points" than older people. In just ten years, a younger person is likely to graduate from college, woo and win a mate, start a family, and buy a house. Older people, in contrast, can easily pass a decade doing the same job and living in the same house with the same spouse. The absence of frequent life-changing events may partly explain why older people feel that the later decades seem to pass so quickly.
23수특-1702
Social mobility is upward or downward movement in social position over time in a society. That movement can be specific to individuals who change social positions or to categories of people, such as racial or ethnic groups. Social mobility between generations is referred to as intergenerational mobility. The self-made myth suggests that social position in the United States is largely up to the individual, implying that mobility is quite common and easy to achieve for those who apply themselves. However, what people believe and what is fact are often not the same. A recent experimental study found that Americans substantially and consistently overestimate the amount of income mobility and educational access in society. The higher one's social class, the more likely they are to overestimate social mobility. In other words, wealthy Americans tend to subscribe to the belief that pulling oneself out of poverty is easier than it actually is and that one's wealth is a result of hard work and initiative, rather than luck or birth.
23수특-1703
In Ancient Greece, many private individuals believed in the powers of magic, such as farmers who were always dependent on the weather. Even though the use of magic was widespread in Ancient Greece, there remained an official caution over its use. We know that the Greek authorities believed that magic was an activity capable of results, but they grew concerned about those who practiced harmful magic. So it was established that those who practiced harmful magic could be punished by civic action. This may be the reason why magic in the classical world was held in low esteem and condemned by speakers and writers. Likewise, we find certain intellectuals realizing that the power of magic could be abused. For example, Plato believed that those who sold spells and curse tablets should be punished. Epicurean and Stoic philosophers also believed that magic should be eliminated. This mistrust of magic, along with religion and a separation of humans from the divine world, created a need to develop new methods of understanding the world. It is thus understandable that the Ancient Greeks created the foundations for philosophy.
23수특-1704
The development psychologist Jerome Kagan measured changes in children's temperament between the ages of 4 months and 7 years. He classified several healthy 4-month-old infants as high reactors (easily excited or fearful) or low reactors (relaxed and unafraid), depending upon their responses to an unfamiliar stimulus. Kagan waved colorful mobiles in front of a baby, played a tape saying, "Hello baby, how are you doing today" and popped a balloon behind the baby's head. High reactors moved around violently and cried, while low reactors rested or even laughed during the tests. By the time these infants were 4 years old, some of the high reactors were quite shy, subdued, and quiet, while others had moved toward the center of Kagan's "shy-bold" continuum. By the age of 7, only 15 percent of the initially low reactors were enthusiastic, fearless, and highly sociable kids, and the rest had moved closer to the center. None of the high reactors became fearless, and none of the low reactors became fearful; in other words, environment only moderately affected the final outcome.
23수특-24Gateway
Consider two athletes who both want to play in college. One says she has to work very hard and the other uses goal setting to create a plan to stay on track and work on specific skills where she is lacking. Both are working hard but only the latter is working smart. It can be frustrating for athletes to work extremely hard but not make the progress they wanted. What can make the difference is drive ― utilizing the mental gear to maximize gains made in the technical and physical areas. Drive provides direction (goals), sustains effort (motivation), and creates a training mindset that goes beyond simply working hard. Drive applies direct force on your physical and technical gears, strengthening and polishing them so they can spin with vigor and purpose. While desire might make you spin those gears faster and harder as you work out or practice, drive is what built them in the first place.
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232_s3 본문읽기 20
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 7. 14:26
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23수특-1602
Advertising in the United States is a relatively large and stable marketplace with a dollar volume of activity closely tied to the overall health of the economy. The same is true of other mature industrialized nations, especially those of Western Europe. One significant difference, however, is the way commercial media evolved. In the United States, radio and television systems began as commercial ventures; in many other countries media were largely or completely government supported for years. Different models of commercial support are still evolving and the precise configurations vary by country. This evolution does not mean, however, that governments are uninvolved in steering the development of media. As Joseph Straubhaar observes, television systems are often "stubbornly national," which means advertisers must tailor "global" media plans to the regulatory policies and cultural expectations of individual countries.
23수특-1603
Some people think that facts are the same as events, which they regard as the "objective," "hard core" elements of this universe. The main reason for thinking this is that events seem the best candidates to offer us a rock-solid foundation for our facts. True, events do happen or do not happen; you can neglect them but not deny them. So by replacing facts with events, we might think we have found the strong objective foundation that we strive for. However, facts and events are concepts very different from each other. Unlike facts, events are dated, tied to space and time, whereas facts are detached from space and time. It is even considered a fact that certain events did not occur; it is a fact, for instance, that Darwin did not have a copy of Mendel's 1866 article in his collection. Apparently, a fact is not the same as an event; the best we can say is that a fact is a description of an event, but not the event itself.
23수특-1604
The extent to which decision making is shared with subordinates or concentrated at the top of the hierarchy differs across organizations. Thus, organizations can vary from strongly centralized decision-making practices to highly participatory decision-making practices. In participatory decision making, subordinates have much more input into how decisions are made. Research shows that greater participation in decision making improves employees' satisfaction with the decisions, but does not necessarily translate into better group performance. Therefore, research has investigated when participatory decision making is most useful, and when it is less important. When the workers are highly educated, intelligent, and have considerable expertise in their areas, participatory decision making is more effective. Additionally, when the task at hand is highly complex and knowledge about local conditions is important to the decision, participatory decision making is important. Finally, in times of crisis, when the decisions have very strong impact, participatory, decision making is useful.
23수특-1605
Insects attract collectors' attention because they are extremely diverse and often bear spectacular colors. To biologists, however, bright coloration has been a constantly renewed puzzle because it makes an insect a highly visible prey to prospective predators. Charles Darwin understood that bright colors or exaggerated forms could evolve via sexual selection, the process by which individuals compete for access to mates and fertilization opportunities. However, he felt sexual selection could not account for the striking color pattern of nonreproductive larvae in, for example, Pseudosphinx hawk moth caterpillars. In a reply to Darwin about this puzzle, Alfred R. Wallace proposed that bright colors could advertise the distastefulness of the caterpillars to experienced predators. Indeed, prey that are not edible to predators are predicted to gain by exhibiting very recognizable colors; experienced predators can then correctly identify and subsequently avoid attacking such prey. E. B. Poulton later developed this idea, expanded it to other warning signals (ie, sounds or smells), and coined the term aposematism to describe this phenomenon (from the Greek "away" and "sign").
23수특-1606
In ancient and medieval times considerable respect was accorded to language by those working in the scientific field. According to the ancient metaphysical Weltanschauung, it was believed that the structure of reality and of thought were so closely allied that they were interchangeable. A logical statement ― not only a matter of thinking but also of linguistics ― was automatically a true statement of reality. Since such a statement happened to be true, it did not need to be subjected to experimental testing. However, in modern times it was realized for the first time that trust in the accord between reality and thinking was based on a grossly exaggerated notion of the scope of human reason. In order to discover whether a logical statement (ie the logical language) was really true (ie agreed with reality), the statement should be tested against empirical reality in an experiment. The emphasis on the physical experiment is characteristic of modern science. Later again it was realized that even this approach overrated the importance of thinking: from the outset research should be directed by experiments, although that experimental action ― like any action ― required the support of logical thought.
Advertising in the United States is a relatively large and stable marketplace with a dollar volume of activity closely tied to the overall health of the economy. The same is true of other mature industrialized nations, especially those of Western Europe. One significant difference, however, is the way commercial media evolved. In the United States, radio and television systems began as commercial ventures; in many other countries media were largely or completely government supported for years. Different models of commercial support are still evolving and the precise configurations vary by country. This evolution does not mean, however, that governments are uninvolved in steering the development of media. As Joseph Straubhaar observes, television systems are often "stubbornly national," which means advertisers must tailor "global" media plans to the regulatory policies and cultural expectations of individual countries.
23수특-1603
Some people think that facts are the same as events, which they regard as the "objective," "hard core" elements of this universe. The main reason for thinking this is that events seem the best candidates to offer us a rock-solid foundation for our facts. True, events do happen or do not happen; you can neglect them but not deny them. So by replacing facts with events, we might think we have found the strong objective foundation that we strive for. However, facts and events are concepts very different from each other. Unlike facts, events are dated, tied to space and time, whereas facts are detached from space and time. It is even considered a fact that certain events did not occur; it is a fact, for instance, that Darwin did not have a copy of Mendel's 1866 article in his collection. Apparently, a fact is not the same as an event; the best we can say is that a fact is a description of an event, but not the event itself.
23수특-1604
The extent to which decision making is shared with subordinates or concentrated at the top of the hierarchy differs across organizations. Thus, organizations can vary from strongly centralized decision-making practices to highly participatory decision-making practices. In participatory decision making, subordinates have much more input into how decisions are made. Research shows that greater participation in decision making improves employees' satisfaction with the decisions, but does not necessarily translate into better group performance. Therefore, research has investigated when participatory decision making is most useful, and when it is less important. When the workers are highly educated, intelligent, and have considerable expertise in their areas, participatory decision making is more effective. Additionally, when the task at hand is highly complex and knowledge about local conditions is important to the decision, participatory decision making is important. Finally, in times of crisis, when the decisions have very strong impact, participatory, decision making is useful.
23수특-1605
Insects attract collectors' attention because they are extremely diverse and often bear spectacular colors. To biologists, however, bright coloration has been a constantly renewed puzzle because it makes an insect a highly visible prey to prospective predators. Charles Darwin understood that bright colors or exaggerated forms could evolve via sexual selection, the process by which individuals compete for access to mates and fertilization opportunities. However, he felt sexual selection could not account for the striking color pattern of nonreproductive larvae in, for example, Pseudosphinx hawk moth caterpillars. In a reply to Darwin about this puzzle, Alfred R. Wallace proposed that bright colors could advertise the distastefulness of the caterpillars to experienced predators. Indeed, prey that are not edible to predators are predicted to gain by exhibiting very recognizable colors; experienced predators can then correctly identify and subsequently avoid attacking such prey. E. B. Poulton later developed this idea, expanded it to other warning signals (ie, sounds or smells), and coined the term aposematism to describe this phenomenon (from the Greek "away" and "sign").
23수특-1606
In ancient and medieval times considerable respect was accorded to language by those working in the scientific field. According to the ancient metaphysical Weltanschauung, it was believed that the structure of reality and of thought were so closely allied that they were interchangeable. A logical statement ― not only a matter of thinking but also of linguistics ― was automatically a true statement of reality. Since such a statement happened to be true, it did not need to be subjected to experimental testing. However, in modern times it was realized for the first time that trust in the accord between reality and thinking was based on a grossly exaggerated notion of the scope of human reason. In order to discover whether a logical statement (ie the logical language) was really true (ie agreed with reality), the statement should be tested against empirical reality in an experiment. The emphasis on the physical experiment is characteristic of modern science. Later again it was realized that even this approach overrated the importance of thinking: from the outset research should be directed by experiments, although that experimental action ― like any action ― required the support of logical thought.
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232_s3 본문읽기 15
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 7. 14:26
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23수특-1503
It could be argued that the 'processual' nature of personhood means that one becomes a person as one 'goes along' in society. Indeed, the African philosopher Ifeanyi Menkiti takes this position. He maintains that children are not fully human. Following Kwame Gyekye, a Ghanaian philosopher, however, I would argue that the fact that personhood must be earned is not a denial of personhood to children. It is an affirmation of the view that personhood is an ongoing process attained through interactions with others and one's community. It requires one to affirm ideals and standards thought to be constitutive of the life of a community. These are standards such as generosity, benevolence and respect. A number of sayings in some African societies refer to people who have failed to meet standards expected of a fully human person. These are sayings such as ga e se motho (Tswana) or a ku si muntu (Nguni), literally meaning 'he or she is not a person'. Because one can fall short of these standards at any stage in the life cycle, personhood could be regarded as a becoming. It is an unpredictable, open-ended process during which personhood may be achieved, lost, and regained, depending on a person's circumstances.
23수특-1504
Some countries grow cash crops. These are crops that are in high demand and can be grown in large quantities in specific areas of the world. For example, sugar needs a hot, damp climate; coffee needs a hot climate, rainfall, and higher mountain elevations. Tea needs to grow on hillsides in rainy areas. Bananas grow well in tropical environments. Because there is a worldwide demand for specific items such as these, the farmers in tropical countries grow as much of these commodities as they can. These cash crops are sold all around the world and bring in a lot of money, but there are risks to specializing in just one commodity for trade. If these farmers grow too much of a particular cash crop, that creates more supply than demand, which drops the price of the commodity. If the climate is bad, and the cash crop does not grow well one year, that hurts the country selling it because that crop may be the only one the country provides in large enough quantities to make a living from.
23수특-1505
Some might have had the impression that early scientists like Newton and Galileo belonged to a small sect that conjured science out of the blue as a result of mystical investigation. This wasn't so. Their work did not take place in a cultural vacuum: it was the product of many ancient traditions. One of these was Greek philosophy, which encouraged the belief that the world could be explained by logic, reasoning, and mathematics. Another was agriculture, from which people learned about order and chaos by observing the cycles and rhythms of nature, interrupted periodically by sudden and unpredictable disasters. And then there were religions which encouraged belief in a created world order. The founding assumption of science is that the physical universe is neither random nor absurd; it is not just a meaningless jumble of objects and phenomena randomly placed side by side. Rather, there is a coherent scheme of things. This is often expressed by the simple saying that there is order in nature. But scientists have gone beyond this vague notion to formulate a system of well-defined laws.
23수특-1506
In English, many spelling errors could be avoided if we systematically transcribed each sound with a fixed letter. For instance, if we were to avoid writing the sound f with both the letter "f" and with "ph," life would be much simpler. There is little doubt that we could easily get rid of this and many other useless redundancies whose acquisition eats up many years of childhood. In fact, this is the timid direction that American spelling reform took when it simplified the irregular British spellings of "behaviour" or "analyse" into "behavior" and "analyze." Many more steps could have been taken along the same lines. As expert readers, we cease to be aware of the absurdity of our spelling. Even a letter as simple as "x" is unnecessary, as it stands for two phonemes ks that already have their own spelling. In Turkiye, one takes a "taksi." That country, which in the space of one year adopted the Roman alphabet, drastically simplified its spelling, and taught three million people how to read, sets a beautiful example of the feasibility of spelling reform.
23수특-1601
When we are in groups, we tend to feel that we, personally, aren't as responsible as we would be if we were acting on our own. So the decisions that the group makes can easily become extreme. Occasionally, groups reach riskier decisions ― they decide to take actions which are more challenging or unsafe than they should be. Sometimes, though, they make choices that are too cautious. It's known as group polarization: a tendency towards extremes. A lot depends on how the discussions in the group develop. If one person is advocating a risky strategy early on, others may begin to think of even more challenging examples, and that leads the discussion towards reaching a riskier decision. But if someone advocates more cautious approaches at an early stage, this too can influence the direction of the discussion, resulting in a more cautious decision than the group members might have made individually.
It could be argued that the 'processual' nature of personhood means that one becomes a person as one 'goes along' in society. Indeed, the African philosopher Ifeanyi Menkiti takes this position. He maintains that children are not fully human. Following Kwame Gyekye, a Ghanaian philosopher, however, I would argue that the fact that personhood must be earned is not a denial of personhood to children. It is an affirmation of the view that personhood is an ongoing process attained through interactions with others and one's community. It requires one to affirm ideals and standards thought to be constitutive of the life of a community. These are standards such as generosity, benevolence and respect. A number of sayings in some African societies refer to people who have failed to meet standards expected of a fully human person. These are sayings such as ga e se motho (Tswana) or a ku si muntu (Nguni), literally meaning 'he or she is not a person'. Because one can fall short of these standards at any stage in the life cycle, personhood could be regarded as a becoming. It is an unpredictable, open-ended process during which personhood may be achieved, lost, and regained, depending on a person's circumstances.
23수특-1504
Some countries grow cash crops. These are crops that are in high demand and can be grown in large quantities in specific areas of the world. For example, sugar needs a hot, damp climate; coffee needs a hot climate, rainfall, and higher mountain elevations. Tea needs to grow on hillsides in rainy areas. Bananas grow well in tropical environments. Because there is a worldwide demand for specific items such as these, the farmers in tropical countries grow as much of these commodities as they can. These cash crops are sold all around the world and bring in a lot of money, but there are risks to specializing in just one commodity for trade. If these farmers grow too much of a particular cash crop, that creates more supply than demand, which drops the price of the commodity. If the climate is bad, and the cash crop does not grow well one year, that hurts the country selling it because that crop may be the only one the country provides in large enough quantities to make a living from.
23수특-1505
Some might have had the impression that early scientists like Newton and Galileo belonged to a small sect that conjured science out of the blue as a result of mystical investigation. This wasn't so. Their work did not take place in a cultural vacuum: it was the product of many ancient traditions. One of these was Greek philosophy, which encouraged the belief that the world could be explained by logic, reasoning, and mathematics. Another was agriculture, from which people learned about order and chaos by observing the cycles and rhythms of nature, interrupted periodically by sudden and unpredictable disasters. And then there were religions which encouraged belief in a created world order. The founding assumption of science is that the physical universe is neither random nor absurd; it is not just a meaningless jumble of objects and phenomena randomly placed side by side. Rather, there is a coherent scheme of things. This is often expressed by the simple saying that there is order in nature. But scientists have gone beyond this vague notion to formulate a system of well-defined laws.
23수특-1506
In English, many spelling errors could be avoided if we systematically transcribed each sound with a fixed letter. For instance, if we were to avoid writing the sound f with both the letter "f" and with "ph," life would be much simpler. There is little doubt that we could easily get rid of this and many other useless redundancies whose acquisition eats up many years of childhood. In fact, this is the timid direction that American spelling reform took when it simplified the irregular British spellings of "behaviour" or "analyse" into "behavior" and "analyze." Many more steps could have been taken along the same lines. As expert readers, we cease to be aware of the absurdity of our spelling. Even a letter as simple as "x" is unnecessary, as it stands for two phonemes ks that already have their own spelling. In Turkiye, one takes a "taksi." That country, which in the space of one year adopted the Roman alphabet, drastically simplified its spelling, and taught three million people how to read, sets a beautiful example of the feasibility of spelling reform.
23수특-1601
When we are in groups, we tend to feel that we, personally, aren't as responsible as we would be if we were acting on our own. So the decisions that the group makes can easily become extreme. Occasionally, groups reach riskier decisions ― they decide to take actions which are more challenging or unsafe than they should be. Sometimes, though, they make choices that are too cautious. It's known as group polarization: a tendency towards extremes. A lot depends on how the discussions in the group develop. If one person is advocating a risky strategy early on, others may begin to think of even more challenging examples, and that leads the discussion towards reaching a riskier decision. But if someone advocates more cautious approaches at an early stage, this too can influence the direction of the discussion, resulting in a more cautious decision than the group members might have made individually.
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232_s3 본문읽기 10
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 7. 14:26
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23수특-1402
Spatial position can be indicative of social status. Historical analyses of hundreds of paintings indicate that when two people appear in the same picture the more dominant, powerful person is usually facing to the right. For example, relative to men, women are more often displayed showing the left cheek, consistent with gender roles that consider them as less agentic. In other words, traditionally weak and submissive characters have been assigned to their respective place by where they are situated in space. From the 15th century to the 20th century, however, this gender bias in paintings has become less pronounced, therefore paralleling increasingly modern views of women's role in society.
23수특-1403
Within travel destinations, it is not uncommon to see higher sticker prices in areas most frequented by tourists; prices are much lower elsewhere where locals shop. A few smart tourists soon learn to get away from these "tourist traps" to find better deals where there are not as many tourists. Most tourists will not, because it doesn't pay to spend their scarce vacation time attempting to find cheaper restaurants, souvenirs, and so on outside the tourist areas. If the time spent in searching and shopping for the best deals is included as part of the prices of the purchases, "prices" are actually lower in the tourist areas for most tourists. In sum, locational price differences are generally not considered price discrimination.
23수특-1404
The desire for esteem can be used effectively by society to influence how people act. Systems of prestige are found in all cultures, and in general prestige is used to recognize and reward people who do what is most useful to the culture. People will labor for years, even decades, in the hope of securing the esteem of their fellows and the accompanying right to think well of themselves. By linking prestige and esteem to particular activities or accomplishments, a culture can direct many people to devote their energies in those directions. It is no accident that in small societies struggling for survival, prestige comes with bringing in large amounts of protein (hunting) or defeating the most dangerous enemies (fighting). By the same token, the prestige of motherhood probably rises and falls with the society's need to increase population, and the prestige of entertainers rises and falls with how much time and money the population can devote to leisure activities.
23수특-1501
What do we want to hear when asking the question why John slammed the door? Probably not that John put more than average energy into his act, giving the door more speed (which resulted in a heavy collision of the door with the doorpost, a loud noise and the lamp rocking back and forth). We normally are not interested in a report of the chain of causes and effects leading up to the slamming. Neither do we expect to hear a report about micro-processes in John's body causing his movements. The why-question asks for reasons ― 'He felt offended', for instance. Even when we think in a materialistic frame of mind that the state of being offended can be traced in John's brain, we usually will not be interested in an answer in neurological terms. So, normally, in our day-to-day why-questions about people's actions we expect to hear about their reasons.
23수특-1502
We can presume that the components of love proposed by Sternberg can be found in all cultures. Intimacy, passion, and commitment are most likely cultural universals. Evidence of this comes from many sources, including cultural anthropology, psychological research, and love poetry from across the world. What does appear to vary across cultures, however, is the emphasis placed on the different components of love and on different types of relationships. In collectivist cultures like those found in Asia and Africa, relationships with family may take priority over relationships with lovers and friends. In individualistic cultures, like those of Northern Europe and North America, friendships and romantic relationships compete with family for priority (and often win). Likewise, the concept of duty (similar to Sternberg's concept of commitment) is absolutely central to Chinese Confucianism. In contrast, judging by the mountains of romance novels, love songs, and beauty products found in North America, it is the passionate side of love that is prized in this culture.
Spatial position can be indicative of social status. Historical analyses of hundreds of paintings indicate that when two people appear in the same picture the more dominant, powerful person is usually facing to the right. For example, relative to men, women are more often displayed showing the left cheek, consistent with gender roles that consider them as less agentic. In other words, traditionally weak and submissive characters have been assigned to their respective place by where they are situated in space. From the 15th century to the 20th century, however, this gender bias in paintings has become less pronounced, therefore paralleling increasingly modern views of women's role in society.
23수특-1403
Within travel destinations, it is not uncommon to see higher sticker prices in areas most frequented by tourists; prices are much lower elsewhere where locals shop. A few smart tourists soon learn to get away from these "tourist traps" to find better deals where there are not as many tourists. Most tourists will not, because it doesn't pay to spend their scarce vacation time attempting to find cheaper restaurants, souvenirs, and so on outside the tourist areas. If the time spent in searching and shopping for the best deals is included as part of the prices of the purchases, "prices" are actually lower in the tourist areas for most tourists. In sum, locational price differences are generally not considered price discrimination.
23수특-1404
The desire for esteem can be used effectively by society to influence how people act. Systems of prestige are found in all cultures, and in general prestige is used to recognize and reward people who do what is most useful to the culture. People will labor for years, even decades, in the hope of securing the esteem of their fellows and the accompanying right to think well of themselves. By linking prestige and esteem to particular activities or accomplishments, a culture can direct many people to devote their energies in those directions. It is no accident that in small societies struggling for survival, prestige comes with bringing in large amounts of protein (hunting) or defeating the most dangerous enemies (fighting). By the same token, the prestige of motherhood probably rises and falls with the society's need to increase population, and the prestige of entertainers rises and falls with how much time and money the population can devote to leisure activities.
23수특-1501
What do we want to hear when asking the question why John slammed the door? Probably not that John put more than average energy into his act, giving the door more speed (which resulted in a heavy collision of the door with the doorpost, a loud noise and the lamp rocking back and forth). We normally are not interested in a report of the chain of causes and effects leading up to the slamming. Neither do we expect to hear a report about micro-processes in John's body causing his movements. The why-question asks for reasons ― 'He felt offended', for instance. Even when we think in a materialistic frame of mind that the state of being offended can be traced in John's brain, we usually will not be interested in an answer in neurological terms. So, normally, in our day-to-day why-questions about people's actions we expect to hear about their reasons.
23수특-1502
We can presume that the components of love proposed by Sternberg can be found in all cultures. Intimacy, passion, and commitment are most likely cultural universals. Evidence of this comes from many sources, including cultural anthropology, psychological research, and love poetry from across the world. What does appear to vary across cultures, however, is the emphasis placed on the different components of love and on different types of relationships. In collectivist cultures like those found in Asia and Africa, relationships with family may take priority over relationships with lovers and friends. In individualistic cultures, like those of Northern Europe and North America, friendships and romantic relationships compete with family for priority (and often win). Likewise, the concept of duty (similar to Sternberg's concept of commitment) is absolutely central to Chinese Confucianism. In contrast, judging by the mountains of romance novels, love songs, and beauty products found in North America, it is the passionate side of love that is prized in this culture.
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232_s3 본문읽기 5
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 7. 14:26
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23수특-901
Southern sea lions are seals with small, clearly visible external ears. They are much more mobile on land than true seals, being able to rotate their rear flippers sideways to propel their bodies forward. Sea lions can move quite fast in this manner. A fully grown southern sea lion bull is much larger and more impressive than his northern cousin, the California sea lion. This massive animal measures well over 2 m long and weighs up to half a tonne. His enormous neck is decorated with a shaggy mane; hence the name 'sea lion', which also refers to his roar. The elegant, nearly yellowish females that make up his harem weigh roughly half the average weight of an adult male, but then they expend less energy. From the time he comes ashore in December to when he leaves in March, the bull sea lion neither eats nor sleeps for more than a few minutes at a time: guarding his harem is a full-time job.
23수특-902
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet was born in Philadelphia on December 10, 1787. His family moved to Hartford, Connecticut, where he attended the Hartford Grammar School. He entered Yale College in 1802 and graduated the youngest in his class. Gallaudet became interested in the education of deaf people after meeting Alice Cogswell, the deaf daughter of a neighbor. With funding from Cogswell's father and others, Gallaudet went to Europe in 1815 to learn how to teach deaf children. Dissatisfied by what he saw in British schools for deaf people, Gallaudet visited a school in Paris. There, he received training from deaf teachers Jean Massieu and Laurent Clerc. Gallaudet accompanied Laurent Clerc back to Hartford in 1816 and established the first school for the deaf in the United States in 1817, now known as the American School for the Deaf. Gallaudet served as the institution's principal until 1830. He married one of his former students, Sofia Fowler, and had eight children.
23수특-903
William Black was born in Glasgow, Scotland. His father, a successful merchant, sent him to the School of Art at Glasgow, but Black pursued journalism instead of painting. As a teenager he began writing essays for the local Glasgow newspapers. Some of Black's early articles were on well-known 19th-century English writers and thinkers such as Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin. His early novel James Merle (1864) made little impression. Black eventually left Glasgow for London, where he began to write for another paper, the Morning Star. In 1865, he married Augusta Wenzel, who died in childbirth the following year. Black then went to Europe as a foreign correspondent to cover the so-called Seven Weeks' War, a conflict between Austria and Prussia. After returning to London, he continued to work as a journalist but also began to have success as a novelist. Black set his novels in the Scottish countryside and used a great deal of local color, traditions, and dialect, often setting up a dramatic tension between his rural and his city-bred characters.
23수특-904
Pi Day has been celebrated annually on 14 March since 1988. The brainchild of Larry Shaw, a physicist at the San Francisco Exploratorium, the date 14 March was chosen because the American pattern of writing dates is to put the month before the day, so that 14 March is written as 3/14, corresponding to the pattern of the first three digits of π, 3.14 (three point one four). In 2009, the US House of Representatives passed a resolution recognising 14 March as National Pi Day. The date has attracted increasing worldwide publicity and is celebrated in a vast variety of ways, particularly in schools and colleges, and involves the inevitable consumption of all kinds of pies as well as competitions to memorise and recite as many of the digits of π as possible. Pi Day in 2015 was particularly significant because the date corresponded to the first five digits of π, 3.1415.
23수특-1401
Random sampling doesn't mean just choosing the people to participate in the study haphazardly - there's a difference between the meaning of the word 'random' in everyday use and its meaning in statistics and research methods. A random sample is a sample in which every member of the population has an equally likely chance of being selected for the study ─ and that isn't as easy as it sounds. Most sampling methods will unconsciously favour some people, and not others. Picking names at random out of a telephone directory means that people who are ex-directory or who don't use landlines are not going to be included. In a psychological study, that could introduce a bias, because those people may be different from others in some important way ─ for example, by being younger, or more suspicious of strangers.
Southern sea lions are seals with small, clearly visible external ears. They are much more mobile on land than true seals, being able to rotate their rear flippers sideways to propel their bodies forward. Sea lions can move quite fast in this manner. A fully grown southern sea lion bull is much larger and more impressive than his northern cousin, the California sea lion. This massive animal measures well over 2 m long and weighs up to half a tonne. His enormous neck is decorated with a shaggy mane; hence the name 'sea lion', which also refers to his roar. The elegant, nearly yellowish females that make up his harem weigh roughly half the average weight of an adult male, but then they expend less energy. From the time he comes ashore in December to when he leaves in March, the bull sea lion neither eats nor sleeps for more than a few minutes at a time: guarding his harem is a full-time job.
23수특-902
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet was born in Philadelphia on December 10, 1787. His family moved to Hartford, Connecticut, where he attended the Hartford Grammar School. He entered Yale College in 1802 and graduated the youngest in his class. Gallaudet became interested in the education of deaf people after meeting Alice Cogswell, the deaf daughter of a neighbor. With funding from Cogswell's father and others, Gallaudet went to Europe in 1815 to learn how to teach deaf children. Dissatisfied by what he saw in British schools for deaf people, Gallaudet visited a school in Paris. There, he received training from deaf teachers Jean Massieu and Laurent Clerc. Gallaudet accompanied Laurent Clerc back to Hartford in 1816 and established the first school for the deaf in the United States in 1817, now known as the American School for the Deaf. Gallaudet served as the institution's principal until 1830. He married one of his former students, Sofia Fowler, and had eight children.
23수특-903
William Black was born in Glasgow, Scotland. His father, a successful merchant, sent him to the School of Art at Glasgow, but Black pursued journalism instead of painting. As a teenager he began writing essays for the local Glasgow newspapers. Some of Black's early articles were on well-known 19th-century English writers and thinkers such as Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin. His early novel James Merle (1864) made little impression. Black eventually left Glasgow for London, where he began to write for another paper, the Morning Star. In 1865, he married Augusta Wenzel, who died in childbirth the following year. Black then went to Europe as a foreign correspondent to cover the so-called Seven Weeks' War, a conflict between Austria and Prussia. After returning to London, he continued to work as a journalist but also began to have success as a novelist. Black set his novels in the Scottish countryside and used a great deal of local color, traditions, and dialect, often setting up a dramatic tension between his rural and his city-bred characters.
23수특-904
Pi Day has been celebrated annually on 14 March since 1988. The brainchild of Larry Shaw, a physicist at the San Francisco Exploratorium, the date 14 March was chosen because the American pattern of writing dates is to put the month before the day, so that 14 March is written as 3/14, corresponding to the pattern of the first three digits of π, 3.14 (three point one four). In 2009, the US House of Representatives passed a resolution recognising 14 March as National Pi Day. The date has attracted increasing worldwide publicity and is celebrated in a vast variety of ways, particularly in schools and colleges, and involves the inevitable consumption of all kinds of pies as well as competitions to memorise and recite as many of the digits of π as possible. Pi Day in 2015 was particularly significant because the date corresponded to the first five digits of π, 3.1415.
23수특-1401
Random sampling doesn't mean just choosing the people to participate in the study haphazardly - there's a difference between the meaning of the word 'random' in everyday use and its meaning in statistics and research methods. A random sample is a sample in which every member of the population has an equally likely chance of being selected for the study ─ and that isn't as easy as it sounds. Most sampling methods will unconsciously favour some people, and not others. Picking names at random out of a telephone directory means that people who are ex-directory or who don't use landlines are not going to be included. In a psychological study, that could introduce a bias, because those people may be different from others in some important way ─ for example, by being younger, or more suspicious of strangers.
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0605-131158-232_dg2-wordj-16:20
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 5. 13:11
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{ WORD }
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2363 본문읽기 20
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 4. 12:01
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2363-35
Interestingly, experts do not suffer as much as beginners when performing complex tasks or combining multiple tasks. Because experts have extensive practice within a limited domain, the key component skills in their domain tend to be highly practiced and more automated. Each of these highly practiced skills then demands relatively few cognitive resources, effectively lowering the total cognitive load that experts experience. Thus, experts can perform complex tasks and combine multiple tasks relatively easily. This is not because they necessarily have more cognitive resources than beginners; rather, because of the high level of fluency they have achieved in performing key skills, they can do more with what they have. Beginners, on the other hand, have not achieved the same degree of fluency and automaticity in each of the component skills, and thus they struggle to combine skills that experts combine with relative ease and efficiency.
2363-36
The growing complexity of computer software has direct implications for our global safety and security, particularly as the physical objects upon which we depend ― things like cars, airplanes, bridges, tunnels, and implantable medical devices ― transform themselves into computer code. Physical things are increasingly becoming information technologies. Cars are "computers we ride in," and airplanes are nothing more than "flying Solaris boxes attached to bucketfuls of industrial control systems." As all this code grows in size and complexity, so too do the number of errors and software bugs. According to a study by Carnegie Mellon University, commercial software typically has twenty to thirty bugs for every thousand lines of code ― 50 million lines of code means 1 million to 1.5 million potential errors to be exploited. This is the basis for all malware attacks that take advantage of these computer bugs to get the code to do something it was not originally intended to do. As computer code grows more elaborate, software bugs flourish and security suffers, with increasing consequences for society at large.
2363-37
Darwin saw blushing as uniquely human, representing an involuntary physical reaction caused by embarrassment and self-consciousness in a social environment. If we feel awkward, embarrassed or ashamed when we are alone, we don't blush; it seems to be caused by our concern about what others are thinking of us. Studies have confirmed that simply being told you are blushing brings it on. We feel as though others can see through our skin and into our mind. However, while we sometimes want to disappear when we involuntarily go bright red, psychologists argue that blushing actually serves a positive social purpose. When we blush, it's a signal to others that we recognize that a social norm has been broken; it is an apology for a faux pas. Maybe our brief loss of face benefits the long-term cohesion of the group. Interestingly, if someone blushes after making a social mistake, they are viewed in a more favourable light than those who don't blush.
2363-38
As particular practices are repeated over time and become more widely shared, the values that they embody are reinforced and reproduced and we speak of them as becoming 'institutionalized'. In some cases, this institutionalization has a formal face to it, with rules and protocols written down, and specialized roles created to ensure that procedures are followed correctly. The main institutions of state ― parliament, courts, police and so on ― along with certain of the professions, exhibit this formal character. Other social institutions, perhaps the majority, are not like this; science is an example. Although scientists are trained in the substantive content of their discipline, they are not formally instructed in 'how to be a good scientist'. Instead, much like the young child learning how to play 'nicely', the apprentice scientist gains his or her understanding of the moral values inherent in the role by absorption from their colleagues ― socialization. We think that these values, along with the values that inform many of the professions, are under threat, just as the value of the professions themselves is under threat.
2363-39
When trees grow together, nutrients and water can be optimally divided among them all so that each tree can grow into the best tree it can be. If you "help" individual trees by getting rid of their supposed competition, the remaining trees are bereft. They send messages out to their neighbors unsuccessfully, because nothing remains but stumps. Every tree now grows on its own, giving rise to great differences in productivity. Some individuals photosynthesize like mad until sugar positively bubbles along their trunk. As a result, they are fit and grow better, but they aren't particularly long-lived. This is because a tree can be only as strong as the forest that surrounds it. And there are now a lot of losers in the forest. Weaker members, who would once have been supported by the stronger ones, suddenly fall behind. Whether the reason for their decline is their location and lack of nutrients, a passing sickness, or genetic makeup, they now fall prey to insects and fungi.
Interestingly, experts do not suffer as much as beginners when performing complex tasks or combining multiple tasks. Because experts have extensive practice within a limited domain, the key component skills in their domain tend to be highly practiced and more automated. Each of these highly practiced skills then demands relatively few cognitive resources, effectively lowering the total cognitive load that experts experience. Thus, experts can perform complex tasks and combine multiple tasks relatively easily. This is not because they necessarily have more cognitive resources than beginners; rather, because of the high level of fluency they have achieved in performing key skills, they can do more with what they have. Beginners, on the other hand, have not achieved the same degree of fluency and automaticity in each of the component skills, and thus they struggle to combine skills that experts combine with relative ease and efficiency.
2363-36
The growing complexity of computer software has direct implications for our global safety and security, particularly as the physical objects upon which we depend ― things like cars, airplanes, bridges, tunnels, and implantable medical devices ― transform themselves into computer code. Physical things are increasingly becoming information technologies. Cars are "computers we ride in," and airplanes are nothing more than "flying Solaris boxes attached to bucketfuls of industrial control systems." As all this code grows in size and complexity, so too do the number of errors and software bugs. According to a study by Carnegie Mellon University, commercial software typically has twenty to thirty bugs for every thousand lines of code ― 50 million lines of code means 1 million to 1.5 million potential errors to be exploited. This is the basis for all malware attacks that take advantage of these computer bugs to get the code to do something it was not originally intended to do. As computer code grows more elaborate, software bugs flourish and security suffers, with increasing consequences for society at large.
2363-37
Darwin saw blushing as uniquely human, representing an involuntary physical reaction caused by embarrassment and self-consciousness in a social environment. If we feel awkward, embarrassed or ashamed when we are alone, we don't blush; it seems to be caused by our concern about what others are thinking of us. Studies have confirmed that simply being told you are blushing brings it on. We feel as though others can see through our skin and into our mind. However, while we sometimes want to disappear when we involuntarily go bright red, psychologists argue that blushing actually serves a positive social purpose. When we blush, it's a signal to others that we recognize that a social norm has been broken; it is an apology for a faux pas. Maybe our brief loss of face benefits the long-term cohesion of the group. Interestingly, if someone blushes after making a social mistake, they are viewed in a more favourable light than those who don't blush.
2363-38
As particular practices are repeated over time and become more widely shared, the values that they embody are reinforced and reproduced and we speak of them as becoming 'institutionalized'. In some cases, this institutionalization has a formal face to it, with rules and protocols written down, and specialized roles created to ensure that procedures are followed correctly. The main institutions of state ― parliament, courts, police and so on ― along with certain of the professions, exhibit this formal character. Other social institutions, perhaps the majority, are not like this; science is an example. Although scientists are trained in the substantive content of their discipline, they are not formally instructed in 'how to be a good scientist'. Instead, much like the young child learning how to play 'nicely', the apprentice scientist gains his or her understanding of the moral values inherent in the role by absorption from their colleagues ― socialization. We think that these values, along with the values that inform many of the professions, are under threat, just as the value of the professions themselves is under threat.
2363-39
When trees grow together, nutrients and water can be optimally divided among them all so that each tree can grow into the best tree it can be. If you "help" individual trees by getting rid of their supposed competition, the remaining trees are bereft. They send messages out to their neighbors unsuccessfully, because nothing remains but stumps. Every tree now grows on its own, giving rise to great differences in productivity. Some individuals photosynthesize like mad until sugar positively bubbles along their trunk. As a result, they are fit and grow better, but they aren't particularly long-lived. This is because a tree can be only as strong as the forest that surrounds it. And there are now a lot of losers in the forest. Weaker members, who would once have been supported by the stronger ones, suddenly fall behind. Whether the reason for their decline is their location and lack of nutrients, a passing sickness, or genetic makeup, they now fall prey to insects and fungi.
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2363 본문읽기 15
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 4. 12:01
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2363-30
To the extent that an agent relies on the prior knowledge of its designer rather than on its own percepts, we say that the agent lacks autonomy. A rational agent should be autonomous ― it should learn what it can to compensate for partial or incorrect prior knowledge. For example, a vacuum-cleaning agent that learns to foresee where and when additional dirt will appear will do better than one that does not. As a practical matter, one seldom requires complete autonomy from the start: when the agent has had little or no experience, it would have to act randomly unless the designer gave some assistance. So, just as evolution provides animals with enough built-in reflexes to survive long enough to learn for themselves, it would be reasonable to provide an artificial intelligent agent with some initial knowledge as well as an ability to learn. After sufficient experience of its environment, the behavior of a rational agent can become effectively independent of its prior knowledge. Hence, the incorporation of learning allows one to design a single rational agent that will succeed in a vast variety of environments.
2363-31
People have always needed to eat, and they always will. Rising emphasis on self-expression values does not put an end to material desires. But prevailing economic orientations are gradually being reshaped. People who work in the knowledge sector continue to seek high salaries, but they place equal or greater emphasis on doing stimulating work and being able to follow their own time schedules. Consumption is becoming progressively less determined by the need for sustenance and the practical use of the goods consumed. People still eat, but a growing component of food's value is determined by its nonmaterial aspects. People pay a premium to eat exotic cuisines that provide an interesting experience or that symbolize a distinctive life-style. The publics of postindustrial societies place growing emphasis on "political consumerism," such as boycotting goods whose production violates ecological or ethical standards. Consumption is less and less a matter of sustenance and more and more a question of life-style ― and choice.
2363-32
In labor-sharing groups, people contribute labor to other people on a regular basis (for seasonal agricultural work such as harvesting) or on an irregular basis (in the event of a crisis such as the need to rebuild a barn damaged by fire). Labor sharing groups are part of what has been called a "moral economy" since no one keeps formal records on how much any family puts in or takes out. Instead, accounting is socially regulated. The group has a sense of moral community based on years of trust and sharing. In a certain community of North America, labor sharing is a major economic factor of social cohesion. When a family needs a new barn or faces repair work that requires group labor, a barn-raising party is called. Many families show up to help. Adult men provide manual labor, and adult women provide food for the event. Later, when another family needs help, they call on the same people.
2363-33
Whatever their differences, scientists and artists begin with the same question: can you and I see the same thing the same way？ If so, how? The scientific thinker looks for features of the thing that can be stripped of subjectivity ― ideally, those aspects that can be quantified and whose values will thus never change from one observer to the next. In this way, he arrives at a reality independent of all observers. The artist, on the other hand, relies on the strength of her artistry to effect a marriage between her own subjectivity and that of her readers. To a scientific thinker, this must sound like magical thinking: you're saying you will imagine something so hard it'll pop into someone else's head exactly the way you envision it? The artist has sought the opposite of the scientist's observer-independent reality. She creates a reality dependent upon observers, indeed a reality in which human beings must participate in order for it to exist at all.
2363-34
One of the common themes of the Western philosophical tradition is the distinction between sensual perceptions and rational knowledge. Since Plato, the supremacy of rational reason is based on the assertion that it is able to extract true knowledge from experience. As the discussion in the Republic helps to explain, perceptions are inherently unreliable and misleading because the senses are subject to errors and illusions. Only the rational discourse has the tools to overcome illusions and to point towards true knowledge. For instance, perception suggests that a figure in the distance is smaller than it really is. Yet, the application of logical reasoning will reveal that the figure only appears small because it obeys the laws of geometrical perspective. Nevertheless, even after the perspectival correction is applied and reason concludes that perception is misleading, the figure still appears small, and the truth of the matter is revealed not in the perception of the figure but in its rational representation.
To the extent that an agent relies on the prior knowledge of its designer rather than on its own percepts, we say that the agent lacks autonomy. A rational agent should be autonomous ― it should learn what it can to compensate for partial or incorrect prior knowledge. For example, a vacuum-cleaning agent that learns to foresee where and when additional dirt will appear will do better than one that does not. As a practical matter, one seldom requires complete autonomy from the start: when the agent has had little or no experience, it would have to act randomly unless the designer gave some assistance. So, just as evolution provides animals with enough built-in reflexes to survive long enough to learn for themselves, it would be reasonable to provide an artificial intelligent agent with some initial knowledge as well as an ability to learn. After sufficient experience of its environment, the behavior of a rational agent can become effectively independent of its prior knowledge. Hence, the incorporation of learning allows one to design a single rational agent that will succeed in a vast variety of environments.
2363-31
People have always needed to eat, and they always will. Rising emphasis on self-expression values does not put an end to material desires. But prevailing economic orientations are gradually being reshaped. People who work in the knowledge sector continue to seek high salaries, but they place equal or greater emphasis on doing stimulating work and being able to follow their own time schedules. Consumption is becoming progressively less determined by the need for sustenance and the practical use of the goods consumed. People still eat, but a growing component of food's value is determined by its nonmaterial aspects. People pay a premium to eat exotic cuisines that provide an interesting experience or that symbolize a distinctive life-style. The publics of postindustrial societies place growing emphasis on "political consumerism," such as boycotting goods whose production violates ecological or ethical standards. Consumption is less and less a matter of sustenance and more and more a question of life-style ― and choice.
2363-32
In labor-sharing groups, people contribute labor to other people on a regular basis (for seasonal agricultural work such as harvesting) or on an irregular basis (in the event of a crisis such as the need to rebuild a barn damaged by fire). Labor sharing groups are part of what has been called a "moral economy" since no one keeps formal records on how much any family puts in or takes out. Instead, accounting is socially regulated. The group has a sense of moral community based on years of trust and sharing. In a certain community of North America, labor sharing is a major economic factor of social cohesion. When a family needs a new barn or faces repair work that requires group labor, a barn-raising party is called. Many families show up to help. Adult men provide manual labor, and adult women provide food for the event. Later, when another family needs help, they call on the same people.
2363-33
Whatever their differences, scientists and artists begin with the same question: can you and I see the same thing the same way？ If so, how? The scientific thinker looks for features of the thing that can be stripped of subjectivity ― ideally, those aspects that can be quantified and whose values will thus never change from one observer to the next. In this way, he arrives at a reality independent of all observers. The artist, on the other hand, relies on the strength of her artistry to effect a marriage between her own subjectivity and that of her readers. To a scientific thinker, this must sound like magical thinking: you're saying you will imagine something so hard it'll pop into someone else's head exactly the way you envision it? The artist has sought the opposite of the scientist's observer-independent reality. She creates a reality dependent upon observers, indeed a reality in which human beings must participate in order for it to exist at all.
2363-34
One of the common themes of the Western philosophical tradition is the distinction between sensual perceptions and rational knowledge. Since Plato, the supremacy of rational reason is based on the assertion that it is able to extract true knowledge from experience. As the discussion in the Republic helps to explain, perceptions are inherently unreliable and misleading because the senses are subject to errors and illusions. Only the rational discourse has the tools to overcome illusions and to point towards true knowledge. For instance, perception suggests that a figure in the distance is smaller than it really is. Yet, the application of logical reasoning will reveal that the figure only appears small because it obeys the laws of geometrical perspective. Nevertheless, even after the perspectival correction is applied and reason concludes that perception is misleading, the figure still appears small, and the truth of the matter is revealed not in the perception of the figure but in its rational representation.
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2363 본문읽기 10
카테고리 없음2023. 6. 4. 12:01
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2363-23
There are pressures within the museum that cause it to emphasise what happens in the galleries over the activities that take place in its unseen zones. In an era when museums are forced to increase their earnings, they often focus their energies on modernising their galleries or mounting temporary exhibitions to bring more and more audiences through the door. In other words, as museums struggle to survive in a competitive economy, their budgets often prioritise those parts of themselves that are consumable: infotainment in the galleries, goods and services in the cafes and the shops. The unlit, unglamorous storerooms, if they are ever discussed, are at best presented as service areas that process objects for the exhibition halls. And at worst, as museums pour more and more resources into their publicly visible faces, the spaces of storage may even suffer, their modernisation being kept on hold or being given less and less space to house the expanding collections and serve their complex conservation needs.
2363-24
Hyper-mobility ― the notion that more travel at faster speeds covering longer distances generates greater economic success ― seems to be a distinguishing feature of urban areas, where more than half of the world's population currently reside. By 2005, approximately 7.5 billion trips were made each day in cities worldwide. In 2050, there may be three to four times as many passenger-kilometres travelled as in the year 2000, infrastructure and energy prices permitting. Freight movement could also rise more than threefold during the same period. Mobility flows have become a key dynamic of urbanization, with the associated infrastructure invariably constituting the backbone of urban form. Yet, despite the increasing level of urban mobility worldwide, access to places, activities and services has become increasingly difficult. Not only is it less convenient ― in terms of time, cost and comfort ― to access locations in cities, but the very process of moving around in cities generates a number of negative externalities. Accordingly, many of the world's cities face an unprecedented accessibility crisis, and are characterized by unsustainable mobility systems.
2363-25
The above graph shows the share of the EU-28 population participating in tourism in 2017 by age group and destination category. The share of people in the No Trips category was over 30% in each of the five age groups. The percentage of people in the Outbound Trips Only category was higher in the 25-34 age group than in the 35-44 age group. In the 35-44 age group, the percentage of people in the Domestic Trips Only category was 34.2%. The percentage of people in the Domestic
There are pressures within the museum that cause it to emphasise what happens in the galleries over the activities that take place in its unseen zones. In an era when museums are forced to increase their earnings, they often focus their energies on modernising their galleries or mounting temporary exhibitions to bring more and more audiences through the door. In other words, as museums struggle to survive in a competitive economy, their budgets often prioritise those parts of themselves that are consumable: infotainment in the galleries, goods and services in the cafes and the shops. The unlit, unglamorous storerooms, if they are ever discussed, are at best presented as service areas that process objects for the exhibition halls. And at worst, as museums pour more and more resources into their publicly visible faces, the spaces of storage may even suffer, their modernisation being kept on hold or being given less and less space to house the expanding collections and serve their complex conservation needs.
2363-24
Hyper-mobility ― the notion that more travel at faster speeds covering longer distances generates greater economic success ― seems to be a distinguishing feature of urban areas, where more than half of the world's population currently reside. By 2005, approximately 7.5 billion trips were made each day in cities worldwide. In 2050, there may be three to four times as many passenger-kilometres travelled as in the year 2000, infrastructure and energy prices permitting. Freight movement could also rise more than threefold during the same period. Mobility flows have become a key dynamic of urbanization, with the associated infrastructure invariably constituting the backbone of urban form. Yet, despite the increasing level of urban mobility worldwide, access to places, activities and services has become increasingly difficult. Not only is it less convenient ― in terms of time, cost and comfort ― to access locations in cities, but the very process of moving around in cities generates a number of negative externalities. Accordingly, many of the world's cities face an unprecedented accessibility crisis, and are characterized by unsustainable mobility systems.
2363-25
The above graph shows the share of the EU-28 population participating in tourism in 2017 by age group and destination category. The share of people in the No Trips category was over 30% in each of the five age groups. The percentage of people in the Outbound Trips Only category was higher in the 25-34 age group than in the 35-44 age group. In the 35-44 age group, the percentage of people in the Domestic Trips Only category was 34.2%. The percentage of people in the Domestic
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